Economic effects of water recovery on irrigated agriculture in the Murray‐Darling Basin*

In October 2010, the Murray‐Darling Basin Authority (MDBA) proposed that a range of 3000–4000 GL per year, on average, of additional water be made available for the environment in the Murray‐Darling Basin (MDB) to mitigate the effects of what it considers to be inadequate environmental flows. To help quantify the costs of this water reallocation, a hydro‐economic model was constructed based on the 19 regions of the MDB. The model results indicate the following: (i) substantial reductions in surface water extractions of up to 4400 GL per year impose only a moderate reduction on net profits in irrigated agriculture, Basin wide, given competitive water markets, but the effects are much more pronounced in particular regions/catchments and (ii) the costs of the water reallocation are comparable with the amount budgeted by the Australian government to acquire water from willing sellers and increase environmental flows if inter‐regional water trade is unrestricted.     

完善城市水环境综合治理PPP模式的研究

针对以政府为主导的传统水污染治理方法治理力度不够等问题,以江西省抚河流域生态保护及综合治理为例,分析城市水环境综合治理中运用PPP模式产生的效益及遇到的阻力。研究结果表明,必须从国家法律层面促进PPP模式的发展;各级财政部门要引导PPP模式的进行;金融行业、民营企业等必须加强合作,积极参与PPP模式,发挥各自的优势,建立利益共享、风险共担、全程合作的关系。     

Third‐party effects of water trading and potential policy responses*

A key feature of water policy reform in Australia has been the separation of water access entitlements from land titles and the establishment of markets for water. However, the separation of water entitlements from land failed to account for a number of characteristics that were implicit in the joint right. This has given rise to a number of third party effects as water is traded in an incomplete market. This paper describes four third‐party effects of water trade; reliability of supply, timeliness of delivery, storage and delivery charges, and water quality and examines policy responses to address these effects. The discussion draws on the concepts of exclusiveness and rivalry to determine the applicability of property rights and other solutions to the third‐party effects of trade. It is likely that many of the third‐party effects of trade discussed in this paper do not warrant policy intervention at the national or state level, but intervention at the local level may be warranted. The costs of addressing some third‐party effects may outweigh the benefits. Where there are significant gains from trade, the existence of these third‐party effects should not been seen as a reason to impede trade.     

Missing markets for storage and the potential economic cost of expanding the spatial scope of water trade

A great deal of attention has been given in recent years to the question of externalities associated with water entitlements and how third parties can be protected without restricting opportunities for water trade. Yet one market failure that has received no attention at all is the missing market for storage that arises from the specification of water entitlements, particularly in Victoria where historically all storage decisions were made at the centralised level and where any additional carryover was treated as common property. The economic significance of the missing market for storage is demonstrated using an empirical model that represents the spatial‐temporal pattern of irrigation water demand in the Goulburn Valley and decisions regarding inter‐year storage of water in Lake Eildon. It is shown that, because irrigators have no incentive to trade‐off the benefit of current use (or sale) with the value of water storage, there is an erosion of reliability when opportunities for trade are broadened. The empirical results demonstrate that the loss in economic value associated with reduced reliability are as large as the gains from trade, so there is no net benefit from trade.     

水利风景区PPP项目政府与社会资本方利益协调行为策略研究

为促进水利风景区PPP项目中政府与社会资本方之间的利益协调,保障项目顺利建设运营,研究双方之间利益协调行为策略,并在博弈分析中同时考虑政府的宏观管理者和项目微观参与主体双重身份。采用静态博弈探寻政府和社会资本方的纳什均衡,构建演化博弈模型动态分析双方的行为策略并对该博弈过程进行仿真。仿真结果表明:在政府采取“不积极”策略所承担的风险成本大于“积极”策略所付出的项目建设运行成本、社会资本方采取“投机”策略所承担的风险成本大于“努力”策略所付出的项目建设运行成本的情况下,“积极、努力”在静态博弈和动态博弈中均为均衡策略;否则,要实现“积极、努力”的均衡策略,需满足政府获得的社会生态效益远大于支出的可行性缺口补贴,且社会资本方获得的品牌效应、社会影响力、政府奖励等附加收益和可行性缺口补贴之和远多于转投向其他经营领域所获得的收益。提出了完善水利风景区PPP项目收益分配、风险分担及政策保障机制,建立政府和社会资本方沟通机制,加强对水利风景区PPP项目的监管力度等对策。     

Integrated economic-hydrologic water modeling at the basin scale: the Maipo river basin

Increasing competition for water across sectors increases the importance of the river basin as the appropriate unit of analysis to address the challenges facing water resources management; and modeling at this scale can provide essential information for policy makers in their resource allocation decisions. This paper introduces an integrated economic‐hydrologic modeling framework that accounts for the interactions between water allocation, farmer input choice, agricultural productivity, non‐agricultural water demand, and resource degradation in order to estimate the social and economic gains from improvement in the allocation and efficiency of water use. The model is applied to the Maipo river basin in Chile. Economic benefits to water use are evaluated for different demand management instruments, including markets in tradable water rights, based on production and benefit functions with respect to water for the agricultural and urban‐industrial sectors.     

Achieving environmental flows where buyback is constrained

Theory suggests that the development of common property increases national welfare, and consistent with this thinking Australia's Murray–Darling Basin (MDB) Plan uses a common property approach to recover environmental water rights in the national interest. Two water recovery instruments are used: purchasing water rights (buyback) from farmers, and saving water by subsidising irrigator adoption of technically efficient technology. A moratorium on buyback has focused environmental recovery on subsidised technically efficient technology adoption. Economists argue that national welfare is maximised via buyback and highlight the limitations of efficiency savings to recover sufficient environmental water. A risk is that water recovery targets may be reduced in future, limiting welfare gains from water reform. This article evaluates possible welfare trade‐offs surrounding environmental water recovery outcomes where arbitrary limits on buyback are imposed. Results suggest that, on average, strategies which attempt to obtain >1500 gigalitres (GL) of water from on‐farm efficiency investments will only provide sufficient resources to meet environmental objectives in very wet states of nature. We conclude that reliance on technically efficient irrigation infrastructure is less economically efficient relative to water buyback. Importantly, the transformation of MDB irrigation will significantly constrain irrigators' future capacity to adapt to climate change.     

Presumptions of linearity and faith in the power of centralised decision‐making: two challenges to the efficient management of environmental water in Australia

Water policy in the Murray‐Darling Basin continues to be dominated by the trade‐offs between agricultural and environmental interests. This has recently been played out with the acrimonious debate that circumscribed the release of the Guide to the Murray‐Darling Basin Plan. In this paper, we argue that too much emphasis has been placed on the volume of held water as an indicator of environmental benefit. We also contend that there is an attendant presumption of linearity in the relationship between volumes of held water and environmental benefit which could lead to perverse outcomes. A second problem is that there is too much enthusiasm for contemplating the solutions to water management problems as residing primarily at the federal level of government. These factors stand to ultimately limit the efficient delivery of environmental objectives.     

社会资本参与水利项目的补偿机制研究

社会资本参与水利项目有助于解决资金难题、提高管理效率。针对水利项目经济收益较低等问题,提出政府必须通过提高收益分享比例、延长特许经营期限、信贷优惠、税收优惠、价格补贴、费用补贴、项目捆绑、资源补偿等方式对参与水利项目的社会资本进行利益补偿,政府在选择利益补偿机制时必须考虑水利项目类型、社会资本参与方式等因素的影响。     

跨流域引调水工程供水效益量化分析

跨流域引调水工程是解决水资源时空分布不均、社会水需求不均衡最有效措施。根据跨流域引调水工程涉及不同流域、功能综合、结构复杂、相互交叉的特点,提出了对跨流域引调水工程的供水效益进行量化分析的方法,根据供水结构,基于效益分摊的思想分别对生活供水效益、“三产”供水效益进行量化计算,其中第一产业水产养殖效益采用增加收益法计算。以浙东引水工程为例,具体分析计算了2017年浙东引水工程给工程沿线地区居民生活、“三产”等方面带来的经济效益。计算结果表明,该量化方法能够较好地应用于实际跨流域引调水工程的供水效益计算,且结果较以往单一计算方法更为合理,贴近实际。     

农业水权市场综合框架体系及案例分析

以较为成熟的水权市场建设和水权制度改革理论与实践为支撑,以对多个农业水权市场的实地调研为基础,提出融合制度基础、经济动力、交易参与人、第三方保护和设施基础等5大模块,涵括14个要素的农业水权市场综合框架体系,阐明了各要素之间的内在联系。以澳大利亚维多利亚州、智利Limarí流域和中国石羊河流域为例,在农业水权市场综合框架体系下对3个国家农业水权市场进行分析,进而从水权法律体系、水资源产权管理制度、水权信息共享度、水权交易媒介等多个方面总结出建立健全农业水权市场的必要条件及建议,旨在给我国积极探索建立农业水权市场的决策者们提供参考。     

The potential impact of markets for irrigation water in Italy and Spain: a comparison of two study areas*

The viability of irrigated systems in Southern Europe is closely linked to efficient institutional settings and water‐allocation mechanisms. A significant, although not widely used, mechanism for water allocation is an intra‐sectorial water market. The objective of this paper is to evaluate to what extent water markets may contribute to the improvement of the efficiency of water allocation and to the profitability of irrigated agriculture. The related issues of water allocation among farm types and farm specialisation are also addressed. The analysis is based on a basin‐level linear programming model, comparing the situation with and without a market. It includes both fixed and variable transaction costs and estimates their combined effects on market performances. The model is applied in two areas in Southern Italy and Spain, and simulates the behaviour of different farm types, derived from cluster analysis on a sample of farms in each area. The paper confirms that water markets could potentially improve the economic efficiency of water use, in terms of higher profit per hectare, given limited water availability. The potential improvements are associated with a more intense specialisation of farms and are strongly differentiated among farmers, particularly where significant restrictions to water availability occur. This corroborates the expectations of institutional difficulties in implementing water markets. However, the exchanges, and consequently the potential effects of water markets, are heavily affected by the actual level of water availability, as well as the size and the structure (fixed vs. proportional) of transaction costs. The paper calls for a more in‐depth analysis of the connections between market performances and institutional settings, as related to the issue of water‐agriculture policy design and coordination.     

我国水利生态效益实证分析

根据水利生态效益的特点,运用市场价值法和人力成本法,从水土保持、水质改善、饮水安全3个方面量化水利生态效益,测算1990—2015年全国、陕西省、江苏省的水利生态效益。结果表明,虽然我国水利生态效益总体上升,但效益值仍然偏低,各地区水利生态面临的主要问题不尽相同,需进一步加强水利生态的投资和建设,因地制宜,解决各地主要生态问题。     

Property rights and western United States water markets*

This paper addresses water scarcity issues in the American West and examines the allocation of water through the appropriative rights system and the extent markets are used to reallocate water from low‐ to high‐valued uses. The unique physical properties of water make it difficult to bound and measure, which makes defining property rights difficult. Markets are also impeded by disputes over third‐party effects due to the interdependencies of water users and complex institutional arrangements that dilute decision‐making authority. Analysis of water trading in the western United States indicates that the rate of permanent transfers is increasing over time and urban users are paying higher prices relative to agricultural users.     

水资源资产负债表构建的若干问题探析

在分析国内外水资源资产负债表研究现状的基础上,剖析了现行水资源资产负债表理论研究中存在的主要问题:没有明确的水资源资产概念、会计主体不明晰、缺乏合理的会计分期、水质未与水资源资产关联、没有统一的水资源资产(负债)核算方法。通过研究得到以下结论:通过现代科学技术手段取得但因未投入使用而未发挥效益的水资源可作为潜在水资源资产,当其实际带来经济利益时方可称为水资源资产;水资源资产负债表的会计主体可以是国家、流域、地方政府,将来随着水资源管理的完善也可以是某一供水系统;水质应与水资源资产账户密切联系;可综合采用日历年度和水文年度进行会计分期;应按一定标准统一水资源资产(负债)核算。     

绿色城镇化进程中水环境治理PPP模式运行问题

分析中国城镇化进程中水环境污染及治理投资现状,得出PPP模式将在填补绿色城镇化所需资金缺口、推动社会投资方面发挥积极作用。总结PPP模式在水环境治理投资领域的新发展及具体应用,指出水环境治理投资PPP项目实践中存在各地管理水平不一、民营环保企业参与度低、投资回报机制不健全及法律服务体系不完善等问题。最后提出政府应规范水环境保护PPP项目采购标准,成立专门的PPP管理中心;合理设置社会资本进入门槛,科学构建项目交易制度;建立动态调整的收费定价及政府补贴机制;完善PPP法律服务体系等建议。     

Is there evidence of insider trading in Australian water markets?

Insider trading is a much studied form of market manipulation in the financial market literature. However, studies addressing the issue of insider trading in resource markets, and in particular water markets, are rare. This study investigates the occurrence of insider trading practices around important water market allocation announcements in the Goulburn temporary water market trading zone in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia, which is one of the largest and longest operating water market districts in the world. Nine years of daily water allocation volume and price transactions between 2008 and 2017 are modelled, with some evidence found of abnormal price movements in the 3 or 5 days preceding water allocation announcements, and especially before the introduction of insider trading rules in 2014. However, although the results do suggest some very weak statistically significant evidence that insider trading may still be present in Goulburn water markets post‐2014, it is just as feasible that our results may also reflect an increased sophistication of trader behaviour over time.     

水权质量视阈下小流域水权冲突与协调措施

从水权质量的角度出发,对小流域水权冲突诱因及其协调措施进行研究,阐述了小流域水权冲突的相关概念,归纳总结出小流域水权冲突具有主体多元化、外溢效用严重、对抗激化引致暴力冲突的特征,并对小流域水权冲突经典表现进行介绍,然后对小流域水权冲突的诱因进行了分析。结果表明:当水权以低质量的形式表现出来时,引起其他用水户交易水资源时交易成本降低,机会主义行为发生概率上升,并且水权转让水平低,新的水权冲突不断发生。另外,水权质量低也造成水权凝滞现象发生,以及水权异动频发和水权约束力下降等一系列影响,进而加剧水权冲突事件发生的频率。因此,政府应创新小流域内水利基础设施投融资机制,建立小流域水权分配机制,推进小流域水权市场建设,引入生态补偿机制,以协调由低质量的水权引起的水权冲突。     

国内外水权交易研究述评

通过对国内外水权交易相关文献的整理,就当前的研究成果及问题进行了归纳总结,从水权及水权交易的定义、前提、定价、外部效应及政府的角度对当前研究成果和未来研究趋势进行述评。通过文献梳理得知,近几十年来水权交易的成功案例和经验已为这一问题构建了较完备的研究体系,但在水权的内涵、水权交易的前提、水权的定价等方面的研究成果仍不理想,建议未来应当重点从水权及水权交易的内涵、水权交易过程的效率评价以及生态环境效应等角度开展进一步的研究。     

Water policy reform in Australia: lessons from the Victorian seasonal water market*

The nature of the seasonal water market is examined using a theoretical model and empirical evidence from the Victorian market. Drivers of the seasonal opportunity cost of water include the underlying nature of investment in the industry made in the context of risky entitlement yields; and the timing and nature of information regarding seasonal water availability and rainfall. Seasonal water markets facilitate the re‐allocation of water availability according to this short‐run opportunity cost. Evidence from the market suggests that transactions costs are low and most of the existing constraints to trade in seasonal allocations are the result of hydrological conditions. Analysis of market data suggests that the price response of the market to water availability is much more pronounced in years of low rainfall. The implications of the paper for wider policy reform are that attention should be paid to improving property rights for the management of intertemporal risk before other reforms, such as broadening of permanent water markets and institutionalising environmental flows, are implemented. This is because these other reforms will change the spatial and temporal pattern of water use and thus affect reliability, which underpins the value of water in irrigated agriculture.