Development and income distribution

Zusammenfassung Entwicklung und Einkommensverteilung. — Wegen der ungleichen Einkommensverteilung in unterentwickelten L?ndern k?nnen besonders drei Fragen gestellt werden: I. Was sind die Ursachen der Ungleichheiten im Einkommen in Entwicklungsl?ndern? 2. Warum wurde bis jetzt so wenig oder nichts getan, um die Ungleichheiten abzumildern ? 3. Was, wenn überhaupt, kann in dieser Hinsicht getan werden ? Der Verfasser kommentiert die beiden ersten Fragen, aber der Hauptzweck der vorliegenden Abhandlung besteht darin, einige vorl?ufige Antworten auf die dritte normative Frage zu geben. Er ?uβert die Vermutung, daβ die Verteilung der Einkommen durch die Auswahl und Vorbereitung besonderer Entwicklungsprojekte beeinfluβt werden k?nne, und skizziert die Umrisse von Methoden, mit denen dies bewerkstelligt werden kann.

---

Resumen Desarrollo y distribución del ingreso. — En vista de la distributión desigual del ingreso en paises subdesarrollados cabe preguntar, entre otras cosas, (1) ? cuáles son las razones de las desigualdades en el ingreso en países en desarrollo ? (2) ? por qué se ha hecho hasta el momento tan poco o nada para reducir dichas desigualdades ? (3) ? qué se puede hacer realmente ? El autor comenta las dos primeras preguntas, pero el objetivo principal del présente trabajo consiste en dar algunas contestaciones preliminares a la tercera pregunta. Opina que se podría influenciar la distribución del ingreso a través de la selectión y preparation de projectos especiales de desarrollo, y dise∼na los métodos que se prestarian a llevar ésto a cabo.

---

Résumé Développement et distribution du revenu. — Vu la distribution inégale du revenu dans les pays à développer, on peut poser trois questions en particulier: 1. Quelles sont les causes des inégalités de revenu dans les pays à développer ? 2. Pourquoi n’a-t-on, jusqu’à présent, rien fait, ou en tout cas très peu, pour mitiger ces inégalités ? 3. Y a-t-il quelque chose — et quoi ? — qu’on pourrait y faire ? L’auteur fait quelques remarques à propos des deux premières questions, mais c’est son but principal de donner quelques réponses tentatives à la troisième question normative. Il suggère qu’on pourrait exercer une influence sur la distribution du revenu en choisissant et préparant des projets spéciaux de développement, et il donne l’ébauche des méthodes avec lesquelles cela pourrait se faire.

---

Riassunto Sviluppo e distribuzione dei redditi. — A causa délia disuguale distribuzione dei redditi nei Paesi in via di sviluppo, tre questioni possono essere specialmente poste: 1. Quali sono le cause délie disuguaglianze nel reddito nei Paesi in via di sviluppo ? 2. Perché fino ad ora è stato fatto cosí poco o niente per attenuare le disuguaglianze? 3. Che cosa può essere fatto, se mai, sotto questo riguardo ? L’autore commenta le prime due questioni, ma lo scopo principale del présente saggio consiste in questo, di dare alcune risposte provvisorie alla terza questione normativa. L’autore esprime l’ipotesi che mediante la scelta e la preparazione di speciali progetti di sviluppo possa essere influenzata la distribuzione del reddito e schizza le linee di metodi con cui ciò può essere realizzato.

     

收入分配中的政府责任

导致收入分配失衡、贫富差距过大的原因有很多。对中国来说,首要的问题是,先搞清楚政府的本分是什么,然后才能以此为基础实现收入分配的真正改善.     

Misunderstandings concerning income distribution policies

Summary In this essay in honour of Professor P. Hennipman the latter's clarity and precision of expression are chosen as an example of how to avoid misunderstanding of his publications. As counterexamples some twenty-odd misunderstandings are set out by the essay's author in the field of income distribution policies, ranging from that specific subject to the theory of economic policy, to economic science and to science as a whole. Several of these misunderstandings are due to the essay's author, while others seem to prevail either among the general public or among scientists.     

Project appraisal and income distribution

In spite of much lip service being paid to the equity and employment objectives, these objectives continue to be sacrified to the objective of increasing aggregate income. The first part of this paper criticizes three of the most commonly accepted justifications of the neglect of income distribution. The second part discusses the more recent attempt of incorporating income distribution weights in social cost-benefit analysis. It is argued that the result of this attempt has been satisfying neither to science nor to conscience. Blame is laid on the persistent tendency to aggregate costs and benifits accruing to highly heterogeneous social groups, as well as the tendency to replace unquantifiable phenomena by quantifiable ones.     

改革个人所得税,增大调节收入分配的力度

一、改革个人所得税的理论支持 根据边际消费倾向递减规律，富人越富越有钱他的边际消费倾向越小，反之，穷人越穷，边际消费倾向越大。收入差距的过大使较大比重的社会财富沉淀在少数人手中，很多有消费欲望的人却无力购买，只好降低边际消费倾向，可见进行收入再分配缩短贫富差距对于刺激消费需求的重要意义。     

如何正确认识收入差距

为什么人们容忍不了收入差距 在现实社会经济生活中,我们经常可以看到这样一种情况:人们对于平均主义"大锅饭"的批评程度,要远远比对于收入差距的批评程度小得多.也就是说,人们对于平均主义"大锅饭"往往可以容忍,但是对于收入差距则有着强烈的反抗心理.     

On Kalecki's theory of income distribution

Summary Kalecki scored a breakthrough by introducing the degree of monopoly into his macrodynamic model. He offered a theory of distribution that was independent of the neo-classical tradition. He introduced a promising alternative theory of distribution, even if it lacked a comprehensively formulated theory of market behaviour and was in some respects deficient in dealing with the question of investment decisions. To build a realistic theory of distribution, Kalecki offered an explanation of how prices in fact are formed by mark-ups on prime costs. This use of mark-ups to cover overheads is very important. Though it entails monopoly power it is not synonymous with it.Earlier drafts of this paper were read by and discussed with M. H. Dobb, F. H. Hahn, R. Goodwin, J. A. Kregel, Joan Robinson, K. W. Rothschild, P. Sraffa, P. M. Sweezy. The final revision benefited from the comments of the Editors of this Journal. In expressing my appreciation to all those mentioned, I should like to make the usual disclaimer.     

从居民收入分配看流动性过剩

由制度创新引发的流动性过剩,当然需要通过实施适度的货币政策来抑制,但仅仅依靠货币政策仍然不够     

Stabilization policy and income distribution in developing countries

The trade-off between income distribution and stabilization is one of the least understood in development economics. The paper reviews the recent literature on the effects of devaluation and monetary and fiscal policy. Devaluation is shown to have a significant impact on incomes through both its expenditure switching and reducing effects, this varying with the time perspective taken. The implications of these effects for poverty are explored, and shown in principle to be complex and uncertain. Similarly, monetary and fiscal restraint is shown to influence income distribution through changes in the level and structure of output. How changes in monetary and fiscal policy affect the poor in developing countries is again difficult to determine theoretically. The labor market is shown to be a key determinant of how policy changes are transmitted to poverty groups. The paper concludes that rigorous empirical research on this subject is long overdue.     

The role of real income level and income distribution in fulfillment of basic needs

Using internationally comparable estimates of real GDP per capita, along with World Bank data on seven basic-needs indicators and one income equality measure, relative importance of real income level and income equality, for improvement in the provision of basic needs, is assessed on the basis of a multiple regression model. Income level seems important in almost all cases; but the importance of income equality is observed only on a limited scale. Although income is probably more important in low-income LDCs, the relationships studied appear broadly similar in the low-income and the middle-income LDC contexts.     

Demographic determinants of the distribution of income

This paper explores both theoretically and empirically the effects of fertility, mortality, migration, household structure and other demographic factors on income distribution. A conceptual framework for income distribution analysis is developed and the direct and indirect effects of demographic factors on this framework assessed. Both partial and systems approaches to empirical analysis are explored. The conclusion is that relationship are complex and the net outcome of demographic changes on distribution cannot be fully understood outside a systems framework.     

Unequal access to education and income distribution

Summary This paper attempts a new specification of the education variable in accounting for differences in income distribution in a cross-sectional analysis of 49 countries. The specification refers to the steepness of the educational pyramid, as measured by the coefficient of variation of enrolments within a given country. This variable alone explains 23 per cent of income inequality across countries (as measured by the Gini coefficient), while in the presence of it the traditional (catch-all) per capita income variable becomes insignificant.This finding indicates the importance of the supply side in relative income determination. It is also suggestive that a policy aiming at equalisation of access to the different levels of education might help in reducing income inequality.I would like to thank Arnold Anderson, Mary Jean Bowman, Jan Tinbergen and Peter Wiles for commenting on an earlier draft of this paper.     

Rates of return to education and income distribution

Summary This paper examines the relationship between rate of return to education and income distribution with the help of cross-nation data on 30 developing and developed countries. The results indicate that the higher income groups in the society benefit the higher the rate of return to any level of education, and the bottom 40 percent and the middle 40 percent income groups lose; and the disadvantage for the poor income groups is the least at the primary level of education. As higher rates of return to education suggest higher levels of income inequalities, rapid expansion of the education system may reduce income inequalities through decline in rates of return to education. Secondly, it is also argued here that since high income groups benefit from all levels of education, education investments targeted specifically towards the poor may be preferred to overall investment in education.The author is Consultant, the World Bank, Washington D.C., 20433 (USA), while on leave from the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi. The incisive comments of George Psacharopoulos, Rati Ram, and the Editor(s) of this Journal on earlier versions of this study are gratefully acknowledged. However, the views expressed here and the errors that remain are the responsibility of the author alone and should not necessarily be attributed to anyone else, including the World Bank.