Determinants of the capital adequacy ratio of foreign banks’ subsidiaries: The role of interbank market and regulation

This paper examines the factors influencing the capital adequacy ratio (CAR) of foreign banks. We test whether the CAR of subsidiaries and branches in developed and developing countries depends on the same factors. We use data from 310 subsidiaries and 265 branches to test the impact of the parent banks’ fundamentals on subsidiaries’ and branches’ capital ratios. We also study how the economic condition and regulatory environment in a bank's home country determine foreign banks’ CAR. Our results provide strong evidence that the CAR of subsidiaries and branches operating in developing and developed countries do not depend on the same set of explanatory factors. We also find that the regulatory framework of a parent bank's home country affects the capitalization of its foreign subsidiaries in the host countries. Finally, we show that specific variables of the parent bank have a stronger effect for foreign banks highly related to the interbank market.     

新资本充足率实施对我国商业银行的影响

我国部分商业银行将在2011年开始实施新资本充足率的要求。目前的观点普遍认为,资本充足率对资产和存款的控制不如准备金率。笔者认为,这是静态分析的结果,存有很大的偏颇。如果考虑市场的制约,商业银行无法在市场上顺利实施股权融资,如此必然造成资金的短缺与紧张。商业银行改变盈利模式势在必行。     

动态准备金制度对商业银行信贷投放影响研究

通过构建扩展的Monti-Klein模型推导我国实行的动态准备金制度--差别准备金动态调整对商业银行合意贷款调节的相关关系,采用一阶差分GMM估计方法,实证研究动态准备金制度对信贷投放的影响。结果表明:差别准备金率动态调整机制的实施既未改变传统准备金政策对信贷投放的监管约束作用,又使得商业银行的信贷投放更加平稳有效,且在控制放贷冲动方面,对中小银行的影响较大。     

论国有上市银行独立董事制度的完善

在银行业逐步开放的背景下,国家开放外资参股国有商业银行的主要目的是通过战略投资者的参股改善国有银行的治理水平。本文通过考察外资参股国有商业银行推行独立董事制度的部分实践并结合国内外关于独立董事制度的相关经验,提出独立董事在国有商业银行中的主要功能定位应不同于一般的上市公司,应主要发挥保护存款人利益,关注银行风险的作用。文章还对商业银行独立董事制度的建构以及如何协调独立董事与现有银行的外部监事制度的关系提出建议。     

Does the ownership structure matter for banks’ capital regulation and risk-taking behavior? Empirical evidence from a developing country

This paper applies the two-stage least squares (2SLS) estimator to examine the bi-directional relationship between banks’ capital regulation and risk-taking behavior concerning the impact of ownership structure. We have used a balanced panel dataset of banks from a developing country over the most recent period between 2006 and 2014. The empirical findings of this study suggest that higher capital regulation enhances banks’ stability when it combats with credit risk but higher credit risk often persuades abating capital ratio. Particularly, the key results are as follows: (i) the higher association of minority active shareholding in stability issues is positive; (ii) the higher contribution of active share holding promotes banks’ capital ratio; (iii) the lower ownership concentration prevents credit risk; (iv) private commercial banks are more risk averse and stable than state-owned banks and other type of banks; and (v) notably, Islamic banks show their superiority through overall performance despite their lower capital stability than conventional banks. Besides, no models show significant non-linear relationship between capital regulation and risk-taking except models of stability show a U-shaped relation in capital equation, indicating that when regulatory pressure works in a country then bank lose solvency at the initial stage. Finally, it also provides some imperative policy implications which will be very useful for a wide range of stakeholders.     

Bank Capital and Liquidity Creation: Granger-Causality Evidence

We examine the relation between capital and liquidity creation. This issue is interesting because of the potential impact on liquidity creation from tighter capital requirements such as those in Basel III. We perform Granger-causality tests in a dynamic GMM panel estimator framework on an exhaustive data set of Czech banks, which mainly includes small banks from 2000 to 2010. We observe a strong expansion in liquidity creation until the financial crisis that was mainly driven by large banks. We show that capital negatively Granger-causes liquidity creation in this industry, where majority of banks are small. But we also observe that liquidity creation Granger-causes a reduction in capital. These findings support the view that Basel III can reduce liquidity creation, but also that greater liquidity creation can reduce banks’ solvency. Thus, we show that this reverse causality generates a trade-off between the benefits of financial stability induced by stronger capital requirements and the benefits of increased liquidity creation.     

Capital requirements and bank behaviour: Empirical evidence for Switzerland

In recent years, regulators have increased their focus on the capital adequacy of banking institutions to enhance the stability of the financial system. The purpose of the present paper is to shed some light on whether and how Swiss Banks react to constraints placed by the regulator on their capital. Building on previous work by Shrieves and Dahl (cf. Shrieves, R.E., Dahl, D., 1992. The relationship between risk and capital in commercial banks. Journal of Banking and Finance 16, 439–457), we use a simultaneous equations model to analyse adjustments in capital and risk at Swiss banks, when those approach the minimum regulatory capital level. Our results indicate that regulatory pressure induce banks to increase their capital, but does not affect the level of risk.     

所有权结构对我国银行业绩的影响研究

本文运用我国29家银行2000-2010年业绩及所有权结构指标定量地衡量了所有权结构对银行的盈利能力、资产质量和净利润增长率产生的静态效应、选择效应和动态效应。研究结果表明,在静态效应方面,业绩最优的是城市商业银行;在选择效应方面,被选择进行股份制改革的银行之前业绩较差,被境外投资者选择的银行之前业绩则较好;在动态效应方面,股份制改革和公开上市有利于银行资本充足率的提升。最后本文提出发展城市商业银行体系、健全现代化经营管理体制、规范并加强资本充足率的管理、引入战略投资者以优化银行所有权结构、促进银行业绩增长等建议。     

Fintech,macroprudential policies and bank risk: Evidence from China

We explore the relationship between fintech, macroprudential policies, and commercial bank risk-taking. Based on system generalized method of moment modeling on a panel data of 114 commercial banks in China from 2013 to 2020, results show that there are functional differences in the impact of fintech on bank risk-taking. Payment and settlement technology (PST), capital raising technology (CRT) and investment management technology (IMT) are positively correlated with bank risk-taking. In contrast, market facility technology (MFT) negatively correlates with bank risk-taking. We also find that macroprudential policies weaken the promotion effect of CRT on bank risk-taking and strengthen the inhibition effect of MFT on bank risk-taking while having no significant moderating effect on PST and bank risk, IMT and bank risk. Further, the micro characteristics of banks (capital adequacy ratio, asset scale, liquidity level) affects the moderating strength of macroprudential policies. Various robustness tests confirm our conclusions.     

Bank Capital: Lessons from the Financial Crisis

Using a multicountry panel of banks, we study whether better capitalized banks experienced higher stock returns during the financial crisis. We differentiate among various types of capital ratios: the Basel risk‐adjusted ratio, the leverage ratio, the Tier 1 and Tier 2 ratios, and the tangible equity ratio. We find several results: (i) before the crisis, differences in capital did not have much impact on stock returns; (ii) during the crisis, a stronger capital position was associated with better stock market performance, most markedly for larger banks; (iii) the relationship between stock returns and capital is stronger when capital is measured by the leverage ratio rather than the risk‐adjusted capital ratio; (iv) higher quality forms of capital, such as Tier 1 capital and tangible common equity, were more relevant.     

Examining the Relationships between Capital,Risk and Efficiency in European Banking

This paper analyses the relationship between capital, risk and efficiency for a large sample of European banks between 1992 and 2000. In contrast to the established US evidence we do not find a positive relationship between inefficiency and bank risk‐taking. Inefficient European banks appear to hold more capital and take on less risk. Empirical evidence is found showing the positive relationship between risk on the level of capital (and liquidity), possibly indicating regulators' preference for capital as a mean of restricting risk‐taking activities. We also find evidence that the financial strength of the corporate sector has a positive influence in reducing bank risk‐taking and capital levels. There are no major differences in the relationships between capital, risk and efficiency for commercial and savings banks although there are for co‐operative banks. In the case of co‐operative banks we do find that capital levels are inversely related to risks and we find that inefficient banks hold lower levels of capital. Some of these relationships also vary depending on whether banks are among the most or least efficient operators.     

The Comprehensive Assessment: What lessons can be learned?

Analysing the database made available by the European Central Bank and by the European Banking Authority, we evaluate the Comprehensive Assessment (CA) (Asset Quality Review and Stress Test (ST)) of banks carried out in 2014. In a nutshell, the main results are: (i) risk-adjusted capital ratios are negatively related to the Asset Quality Review shortfall, but not to the ST shortfall, whereas the leverage ratio plays a significant role in both cases; (ii) the CA predominantly concentrated on traditional credit activity rather than on banks’ financial assets and (iii) the CA seems to be characterized by double standards. The Asset Quality Review was severe with banks operating in non-core countries, while medium-sized banks were either riskier or were treated severely in both exercises. The analysis leads to a puzzle: comparatively, the assessment per se led to significant adjustments for solid banks and large shortfalls for weak banks. The puzzle can be resolved by referring to the legacy of the country’s former supervisory activity and to the low level of capitalization of weak banks mostly in peripheral countries.

Abbreviations: ADJ_AQR: adjustment due to the AQR; ADJ_ST: adjustment due to the ST adverse scenario; AQR: asset quality review; bps: basis points (1?bp is equal to 0.01%); bn: billion; CA: comprehensive assessment; CET1: common equity tier 1; CR: coverage ratio; CRD/CRR: capital requirements directive/capital requirements regulation; CVA: credit valuation adjustment; EBA: European Banking Authority; ECB: European Central Bank; LM test: Lagrange-multiplier test; NPE: Non-performing exposure; RWA: risk-weighted asset; SF_AQR: shortfall due to the AQR; SF_ST: shortfall due to the ST adverse scenario; SREP: supervisory review and evaluation process; SSM: single supervisory mechanism; ST: stress test; tr: trillion (one thousand of billions)     

资本金缺口及各种补充方式利弊分析

资本金来源渠道狭窄,未能建立起动态的可随时补充资本金的良好机制是中国商业银行资本充足率偏低的主要原因。目前国内商业银行资本金补充的需求量相当大并且是动态增长的,为了应对WTO的挑战,需要尽快补充资本金并建立资本金补充的动态机制。资本金补充的方式多种多样,各种补充方式既有其积极的一面,也有其局限性。而且无论以何种方式补充资本金,都会使商业银行的股权结构和债务比率发生变化,影响商业银行的性质及其股东的控制权。因此,商业银行建立资本金补充的动态机制,就必须对各种补充方式进行有效组合;并且依靠内源融资方式,才能在长期内保持股权结构的稳定。     

资本充足率约束与我国商业银行经营转型的关联性分析

对于商业银行资本充足率的构成、影响因素、解决资本充足率不足的途径等问题,国内外很多学者已经进行了研究,其中,对于影响因素的研究,尤其成为20世纪90年代以来的银行业研究的热点问题。本文着重分析资本充足率约束与我国商业银行经营转型之间的内在逻辑关系,借助计量经济学模型方法,对近年来,资本充足率约束与我国部分股份制商业银行经营状况之间的关系进行了实证研究,结果显示,巴塞尔协议中的资本充足率约束已开始对我国的商业银行的经营发挥效应。     

Liquidity creation,regulatory capital,and bank profitability

We examine the interrelationships among liquidity creation, regulatory capital, and bank profitability of US banks. We find that regulatory capital and liquidity creation affect each other positively after controlling for bank profitability. However, this relationship is largely driven by small banks and primarily during non-crisis periods. It is also sensitive to the level of banks' regulatory capital and how it is measured. Furthermore, we find that banks which create more liquidity and exhibit higher illiquidity risk have lower profitability. Finally, the relationship between regulatory capital and bank performance is not linear and depends on the level of capitalization. Regulatory capital is negatively related to bank profitability for higher capitalized banks but positively related to profitability for lower capitalized banks. Therefore, a change in regulatory capital has differential impacts on bank performance. Our findings have various implications for policymakers and bank regulators.     

Sukuk market development and Islamic banks’ capital ratios

This paper investigates the impact of Sukuk market development on Islamic banks’ capital ratios using a sample comprising 230 Islamic banks spanning the period 2005–2014. We characterize Islamic bank capital along multiple dimensions, namely: capital adequacy ratio, Tier 1 capital ratio, and capital-to-total assets ratio. We employ both the Prais-Winston technique and the system GMM estimator to tackle potential omitted variable bias, endogeneity, and simultaneity issues. The evidence shows that Sukuk market development has had a negative effect on capital ratios of Islamic banks. We argue that the development of Sukuk markets may have stimulated the competition between Islamic Banks, inducing them to hold lower capital ratios. Our results also show that trade openness and bank liquidity are positively and significantly related to capital ratios, while bank size and loan loss reserve ratio are negatively and significantly related to capital ratios, as expected.     

我国商业银行净利润与资本结构关系的实证研究

本文采用多元回归方法,分析我国商业银行净利润与资本结构的关系,选取2007年以来我国4家国有商业银行和7家股份制商业银行的半年度数据为样本,实证研究我国商业银行资本结构对经营绩效的影响。研究结果表明,净利润与资产规模、前五大股东持股比例有显著的正相关,同时与资本充足率、第一大股东持股比例有显著的负相关,商业银行的资本结构对其净利润有显著的影响。     

Ownership concentration and bank risk: international study on acquisitions

This paper explores the effects of different types of bank ownership concentration on changes in bank risk during acquisition years. Using multi-country data from 2000 to 2006, during which market failures caused by various crises and government interventions are less influential to acquisition decisions, we collect 505 banking acquisition deals from 23 countries to examine which type of ownership concentration (such as financial intermediary, capital investor, non-financial, and state ownership) brings larger changes to an acquirer’s risk from pre-acquisition year to post-acquisition year (including non-performing loans, capital adequacy ratio, loan loss reserve, and credit rating). The empirical analyses show that acquirer banks with a concentration of shares owned by financial intermediaries and non-financial firms experience larger risk changes during acquisition years. In contrast, the risk changes of acquirer banks with a concentration of capital investors and state ownership are lower. Robustness checks from the random effect estimation, instrumental variables model, reverse causality, and different subsamples of (non-)U.S. or different levels of regulation enforcement confirm these results.     

中国A股量价之间动态关系的实证研究

本文采用了VAR模型以及Granger因果检验的方法来考察量价之间的动态相关关系。我们选定1996年12月16日至2008年12月31日作为样本研究区间,实证发现滞后期的交易量和收益对当前期交易量与收益的解释力度存在下降趋势;同时,交易量同收益之间由收益对交易量的单向引导发展为双方互为Granger原因。本文得到的交易模式的动态演变轨迹反映了我国投资者式逐步趋于理性成熟。     

Financial distress and the Malaysian dual baking system: A dynamic slacks approach

This paper presents an efficiency assessment of the Malaysian dual banking system using the Dynamic Slacks Based Model (DSBM) in order to assess the evolution of Malaysian Banks’ potential input–saving/output–increase from 2009 to 2013. More precisely, DSBM is used first in a two-stage approach to assess the relative efficiency of Malaysian Islamic and conventional banks by emulating the CAMEL rating systems. Then, in the second stage, Monte Carlo Markov Chain (MCMC) methods applied to generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) are combined with DSBM results as part of an attempt to produce a model for banking performance assessment with effective predictive ability. Results indicate higher inefficiency levels and slacks in Islamic banks when compared to conventional ones. Furthermore, when the scope of analysis is the group of Malaysian Islamic banks, the efficiency levels of foreign banks are lower compared to their national counterparts, suggesting regulatory and cultural barriers. Policy implications are derived.