Illiquidity,transaction cost,and optimal holding period for real estate: Theory and application

Choosing the optimal holding period is an important part of real estate investment decisions, because “when to sell” affects “whether to buy”. This paper presents a theoretical model for such decision making. Our model indicates that the optimal holding period is affected by both systematic and non-systematic factors—market conditions (illiquidity and transaction cost) and property performance (return and return volatility). Other things being equal, higher illiquidity and transaction costs lead to longer holding periods, while higher return volatility implies shorter holding periods. Our empirical application suggests that the optimal holding period based on our model is quite consistent with previous empirical findings. In addition, we find that when illiquidity risk is incorporated the true real estate risk is significantly higher than the conventional risk estimate. Therefore, the current practice of real estate valuation, which is naively borrowed from finance theory, substantially underestimates real estate risk.     

商业地产分期开发期权价值分析

开发企业采取分期开发方式,可以利用项目未知信息中蕴涵的机会给项目带来进一步选择的灵活性,以扩大项目价值。传统投资决策方法只适用于短期的、确定性高的一次性投资项目,而实物期权理论却是探讨分期开发投资的一种有效工具。采用Geske推导的复合看涨期权定价公式以及B-S简单看涨期权定价模型,构建分期开发期权价值计算模型,求解分期开发期权价值大小。该模型合理地评估了商业地产分期开发期权价值的大小,可以作为商业地产开发商进行投资决策的依据。     

实物期权方法在企业投资决策中的应用研究

为了更好的对投资项目进行评估,引入了实物期权理论,为项目投资决策提供全新的思路。本文介绍了实物期权理论,并根据企业投资决策的特点,介绍了实物期权的分类和特征,提出了实物期权应用于企业投资决策的一般步骤。     

Dynamic Lobbying Conflicts

This paper analyzes a dynamic lobbying model in which two antagonistic lobbies compete with each other for a prize over two time periods that are linked through status quo bias. The attacker has to decide whether to attempt an attack on the status quo already in the first period or whether to wait. We identify how the attacker’s behavior in the dynamic model differs from that in a comparable static model. Two antagonistic effects are the “option value effect” that is similar to the real option effect in the theory of investment decisions under uncertainty; and a “defender discouragement effect” that often makes change cheaper to achieve than in a comparable static model.      

A real options approach to valuing and negotiating licensing agreements

We apply real options modeling to a common pharmaceutical industry licensing arrangement to take into account various uncertainties and the flexibility value. The managerial flexibility is limited to the project abandonment option. We extend previous work by incorporating the phases required to bring the project from patent approval to market. We also incorporate a deterministic variable into the cash flow process that provides a realistic product lifecycle. We focus on the allocation of project value between licensor and licensee, i.e., the so-called “profit split” ratio (PSR) because it is commonly used in practice to negotiate terms. We find: (1) Ignoring the managerial flexibility in valuation may cause the licensee to either forego an acceptable deal or enter into an inferior deal. (2) The magnitude of project profitability as well as cost and sales uncertainty affects the licensor's bargaining power over compensation for granting abandonment flexibility to the licensee. (3) Managers must exercise care when estimating sales volatility because the flexibility value is more sensitive to sales volatility than it is to cost volatility. (4) Failure to incorporate the product lifecycle will produce suboptimal capital investment decisions.     

Time preference and real investment

This paper studies the investment timing problem of an entrepreneur with a non-tradable real option with undiversifiable risk. We find that the time preference can have a significant impact on the risk attitude toward the idiosyncratic risk, which results from the wealth effect on the implied option value. If the agent is impatient (patient), an increase in idiosyncratic volatility increases (decreases) the agent’s value and delays (hastens) investment. This finding suggests several important implications and empirical predictions for investment decisions in private firms and public firms with concentrated ownership.     

Steuern und Risikobereitschaft in Modellen irreversibler Investitionen

This paper provides an overview of the literature on the influence of taxation on investment behavior under uncertainty, especially under the real options paradigm. We analyze the impact of taxation on risk-taking under irreversibility. Extending the existing literature we integrate a simple tax system into a real option model. Under irreversibility and risk neutrality, raising the tax rate can either increase or reduce risk-taking. Referring to combinations of volatility and tax rate it is possible to identify conditions for an unambiguous influence of taxes on risk-taking. Numerical simulations indicate that raising the tax rate increases risk-taking under low volatility. Implementing a final withholding tax on capital income tends to reduce risky investment. Our findings confirm the well-known results under certainty and extend them with respect to uncertainty, irreversibility, and risk-taking.     

重构企业R＆D项目战略投资决策方法体系

传统的投资决策方法是一种建立在广泛应用的以货币的时间价值为基础的投资决策方法,它已越来越不能适应当今充满不确定性和竞争性的市场需要.实物期权方法比传统的折现现金流法（DCF）更适合来分析不确定条件下的投资决策问题,但仅凭实物期权方法还不能对不完全竞争环境下的企业R＆D项目战略投资问题进行准确分析和估价,而引入期权博弈理论恰好能克服这些缺陷.文章从理论上阐述了重构企业R＆D项目投资决策方法体系的可能性和必要性,并由此提出了研究的基本框架.     

Investment decisions in manufacturing: assessing the effects of real oil prices and their uncertainty

We investigate the effects of real oil prices and their uncertainty on investment decisions. Making use of plant‐level data, we estimate dynamic, discrete‐choice models that allow modeling investment inaction, under different assumptions related to initial conditions and unobserved heterogeneity. We find that increases in real oil price changes and in real oil price uncertainty significantly reduce the likelihood of investment action, in line with the predictions of irreversible investment theory. We also document that investment decisions exhibit strong, pure state dependence and are also significantly affected by initial conditions. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于实物期权的风险投资项目评价分析

风险投资项目与其他项目相比不确定性更大,在传统投资决策方法下,风险投资项目的不确定性使项目的投资价值更低,而实物期权方法作为一种新的投资决策方法为风险项目投资中不确定性问题提供了一种解决的思路。尝试把实物期权理论引入到风险投资项目评估中,并把传统方法与实物期权方法结合起来,旨在完善风险投资项目的评价方法。最后得出结论,实物期权方法为投资者继续投资提供了科学的依据,其在风险项目投资决策中的应用具有重要意义。     

灰色GM(1,N)方法在股票预测中的应用

对股票价格的预测,直接影响投资者的投资决策,与投资者的经济利益密切相关。股票市场特有的的波动性和不确定性,给股票的预测带来困难。20世纪80年代兴起的灰色系统理论,应用于股市预测的探索已经取得一定成就,已经采用过GM(1,1)模型、灰色神经网络模型、以及灰色马尔可夫模型等预测方法。文中拟采用GM(1,N)模型对股票价格进行预测,并与GM(1,1)模型进行比较,证实了GM(1,N)拥有更好的精度。     

风险投资决策的多阶段混合式期权定价模型及其分析

从风险投资的投资时间多阶段性和投资决策不确定性出发,运用实物期权的二叉树模型和扩展后的三叉树模型,建立了一个符合风险投资实际的多阶段混合式期权定价模型,以期开拓对风险投资决策的新思路。     

Devaluating projects and the investment–uncertainty relationship

Sarkar (2000. On the investment–uncertainty relationship in a real options model. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 24, 219–225) analyzes the investment–uncertainty relationship in a real-options model demonstrating that the widely accepted conclusion that uncertainty harms investment can be reversed. Wong (2006. The effect of uncertainty on investment timing in a real options model. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, forthcoming) confirms this point showing that more uncertainty can reduce the expected time to exercise the investment option. This paper deals with such an issue and attempts to integrate both Sarkar's and Wong's analysis.For risk-neutral investors, we show that uncertainty can favor investment only if projects devaluate over time. This conclusion does not hold in a CAPM framework, where we demonstrate that the relationship uncertainty/investment can be positive (a) even when the investment threshold increases with uncertainty and (b) in the case of projects negatively correlated with the market portfolio.     

Inventory management under uncertainty: A financial theory for the transactions motive

This paper examines the effects of risk aversion and output market uncertainty on optimal inventory policy decisions for a transactions demand for inventory using the capital asset pricing theory. The paper shows that (1) the optimal order quantity of the risk-adjusted value-maximizing firm is smaller than that of the expected-profit-maximizing one and (2) the greater the firm's output market uncertainty, the smaller its optimal order quantity, where the output market uncertainty is defined as the relative volatility of the demand for the firm's output.     

不确定性项目投资决策中的实物期权研究

在一些不确定性项目决策过程中,传统的评价方法出现了不完整甚至错误的结论,这是因为传统的方法没有考虑到项目的管理柔性的价值,针对这种情况,文章引入了实物期权理论,详细阐述了如何建立项目投资评价的实物期权框架,并且用一个实例说明了如何运用定量的分析来实际操作一个延迟期权的价值。     

Modeling and forecasting trading volume index: GARCH versus TGARCH approach

Volatility has been described as an indicator of uncertainty which has implications for investment decisions, risk management as well as monetary policy. This paper investigates the pattern of volatility in the daily trading volume index of Hong Kong stock exchange. The empirical evidence provided in this paper suggests that TGARCH specification is superior to GARCH specification. This is particularly important when one is dealing with the case of asymmetric information that captures the leverage effect of the volatile stock market.     

复合期权模型在矿业工程投资决策中的应用

本文介绍了复合期权的基本概念及国内外研究情况,就复合期权理论在矿业工程投资决策中的应用进行了探讨,采用geske模型并结合实例对此进行了验证。研究表明,运用复合期权理论进行矿业工程投资决策,在某种程度上能更好地反映不确定性和管理灵活性的价值。     

Value and risk dynamics over the innovation cycle

This paper studies investment in intellectual capital and corresponding value and risk dynamics over the innovation cycle. We assume that the innovation cycle consists of three phases, R&D, trial, and market introduction phases. We use a real option investment model to characterize firm value and risk dynamics over the innovation cycle and find that firm value is the sum of the value of assets in place and non-linear option values related to breakthrough, exit, and market introduction options. Firm risk over the innovation cycle is highly non-linear and quite distinct in different phases. During the R&D phase risk is high as the firm faces high operating leverage originating from R&D fixed costs together with technological uncertainty. During the trial phase risk is significantly lower and dominated by option risk to launch the product in the market while after the introduction of the product in the market risk is equivalent to the asset risk of the company. Our model is consistent with the view that positive excess returns of R&D intensive firms are a compensation for risk. Based on this insight we derive several testable predictions.     

基于实物期权的房地产最优开发时机

本文主要利用实物期权定价理论,结合房地产实际投资状况,通过处理房地产开发项目的单位价格和单位建设成本之间的相互影响,建立了关于价格与成本之间的房地产最优投资决策时机模型,探讨了房地产开发的最适时机的选择问题。     

Aggregate volatility expectations and threshold CAPM

We propose a volatility-based capital asset pricing model (V-CAPM) in which asset betas change discretely with respect to changes in investors’ expectations regarding near-term aggregate volatility. Using a novel measure to proxy uncertainty about expected changes in aggregate volatility, i.e. monthly range of the VIX index (RVIX), we find that portfolio betas change significantly when uncertainty about aggregate volatility expectations is beyond a certain threshold level. Due to changes in their market betas, small and value stocks are perceived as riskier than their big and growth counterparts in bad times, when uncertainty about aggregate volatility expectations is high. The proposed model yields a positive and significant market risk premium during periods when investors do not expect significant uncertainty in near-term aggregate volatility. Our findings support a volatility-based time-varying risk explanation.