Exchange rates,stock prices,and money markets: evidence from Singapore

This paper uses a monetary approach to analyze the asymmetric asset-price movements (exchange rates and stock prices) in Singapore, a small open economy with managed exchange rate targeting. The Singapore dollar exchange rates vis-à-vis the developed countries’ currencies are negatively related to stock prices whereas the relationship between the Singapore dollar-Malaysian ringgit exchange rate and stock prices is positive instead. The pattern of asymmetry is explained by the relative exchange-rate elasticity of real money demand and real money supply and evidenced by the distributed-lag regression and VAR analysis. Furthermore, the distributed-lag regression of monthly data suggests that fiscal revenues as well as fiscal expenditures exert positive influences on stock prices.     

The exchange rate and the trade balance

Exchange rate flexibility is commonly justified as an efficient method for adjusting the trade balance to some desirable net international capital flow. In this orthodox view, fluctuations in a country's terms of trade or its saving-investment balance would continually upset its balance of payments equilibrium if the nominal exchange rate remained rigid.But this prevailing doctrine favoring exchange flexibility is only correct when economies are insular, ie. have limited trade and financial arbitrage with the outside world. With the spread of exchange controls and trade restrictions in the 1930s into the 1950s, the industrial countries became somewhat insulated from each other. A devaluation could then have the conventional effect of reducing a trade deficit because monetary and exchange rate policy were separable.Among the open industrial economies of the 1980s, however, financial arbitrage is uninhibited and trade is fairly free. Monetary policy, both current and prospective, now dominates what happens to the exchange rate. Because a devaluation today reflects an easier money policy in the present, or an expected easing in the future, it no longer has any predictable impact on the monetary value of the net trade balance. Exchange rate flexibility loses its usefulness in controlling net exports while becoming highly disruptive to the economy's macroeconomic stability.For example, the American dollar's downard float over the past three years should not be (have been) expected to improve the U.S. current account. However, allowing the dollar to depreciate below its purchasing power parity greatly increases the inflationary potential in the Americian economy.     

Re-estimation of China-EU trade balance

Significant discrepancy exists between official Chinese and EU trade statistics on the magnitudes of the China-EU trade in goods as well as in services. While the discrepancy of China-U.S. trade surplus has been thoroughly studied by scholars and policymakers, the discrepancy of China-EU trade surplus is barely discussed in literatures. This may lead to seriously bias in understanding China-EU trade relationship, and even cause unnecessary trade friction. In this paper, we discuss the reasons behind the discrepancy of China-EU trade and quantify the extent to which the discrepancy is contributed by transportation costs, re-exports and their markups. We also employ the input-output tables of both EU and China, and measure the China-EU trade balance of goods and services in both domestic value-added (DVA) terms as well as in gross terms. The discrepancy of China-EU trade balance in goods (and services) still exists after adjustments, but is significantly reduced. With the adjustments on price and re-exports, in 2016, the discrepancy of China-EU trade in goods and services of Chinese release over EU release would shrink from an initial estimation of US$90.6 billion to an estimation of US$20.4 billion in gross terms, and further to US$15.8 billion in value-added terms.     

How to keep trade policy open: the case of Indonesia

We explore the ups and downs of trade protectionism in Indonesia since the Asian financial crisis of 1997–98. The key constraints to unilateral trade reform include exchange rate factors, the political economy of consumer–producer behaviour, institutional complexity and global pressures. We conclude that trade reform is likely to face difficulties, with protectionism on the rise again, but that, during the temporary halt in the World Trade Organization's Doha Round of trade negotiations, Indonesia may be able to use regional and international engagement to counterbalance rising protectionism.     

Processing trade,exchange rates and China's bilateral trade balances

This paper analyzes the role of processing trade in China's bilateral trade balances and the impact of the yuan's appreciation on China's processing trade. The analysis is based on panel data covering bilateral processing trade between China and its partners from 1993 to 2008. The empirical results show that: (1) processing trade accounted for 100% of China's annual trade surplus during the period; (2) China's processing trade showed a significant regional bias—77% of processing imports originated from East Asia while only 29% of processing exports was destined to the region in 2008; and (3) a real appreciation of the yuan would negatively affect both processing imports and exports—specifically, a 10% real appreciation of the yuan would reduce not only China's processing exports by 9.1% but also its processing imports by 5.0%. Based on these empirical findings we conclude that the combined effect of the yuan's appreciation on the balance of processing trade and thus China's overall trade balance will be limited.     

The balance of payments approach to trade tax symmetry theorems

Zusammenfassung Der Zahlungsbilanzansatz für die Theoreme der Steuersymmetrie im Au\enhandel. — In diesem Aufsatz wird zur Symmetrie zwischen Einfuhr- und Ausfuhrsteuern zweierlei festgestellt. Erstens: Wenn man die Steuer bei allen Positionen auf der Sollseite einer Zahlungsbilanz um die gleiche Summe erh?ht wie die Zuschüsse für alle Positionen auf der Habenseite, dann ist die Erh?hung in dem Sinne neutral, da\ alle realen und nominalen Variablen unver?ndert bleiben. Diese Aussage gilt für alle Marktstrukturen, Wechselkurssysteme und Arten internationaler Transaktionen ebenso wie für den Fall, da\ viele Güter international gehandelt werden, für Z?lle, die in der Ausgangssituation gr?\er als Null sind, und unabh?ngig davon, ob die Annahme eines Zahlungsbilanzgleichgewichts gemacht wird oder nicht. Zweitens wird behauptet, da\ in plausiblen Modellen die Symmetrie auch bei unvollkommener Konkurrenz bestehen bleibt. Dies erscheint als eine nützliche Generalisierung des Lerner-Theorems, weil die logische Struktur des Theorems deutlich herausgestellt wird.

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Résumé L’approche de balance des paiements aux théorèmes des symétries de taxe sur le commerce. — Dans cet article nous nous occupons avec deux aspects de la symétrie entre les taxes importatrices et exportatrices. Premièrement, l’augmentation de la taxe sur tous les débits de la balance des paiements et de la subvention sur tous les crédits de la balance des paiements d’un montant égal est neutre sur ce point qu’elle ne change pas les variables nominales et réelles. De plus, cela est juste pour toutes les structures du marché, les systèmes du taux de change et les variétés des transactions internationales ainsi que pour le cas de plusieurs biens et des tarifs non-zéro au début et aussi indépendamment de la supposition que la balance des paiements est en équilibre. Deuxièmement, nous arguons que dans les modèles plausibles la symétrie continue d’exister mème s’il y a une concurrence imparfaite. C’est une généralisation utile du théorème de Lerner car il met en évidence la structure logique du théorème.

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Resumen: Balanza de pagos y teoremas de la simetría del impuesto sobre el commercio exterior. — En este estudio se discuten tres aspectos de la simetria entre impuestos sobre la importación y exportatión. En primer lugar, un aumento del impuesto sobre el pasivo de la balanza de pagos correspondido exactamente por un aumento del subsidio al activo de la balanza, deja todas las variables, reaies y nominales, inalteradas y es por lo tanto neutral. Esto tiene además validez para todo tipo de estructuras de mercado, sistemas de tipo de cambio, variedad de transacciones internacionales y para muchas mercaderias y tarifas iniciales que no sean nulas. En segundo lugar, se discute que la simetría permanece en presencia de competencia imperfecta en algunos modelos plausibles.

     

Prices,output and the trade balance in Iran

This paper analyses the impact of the rise in oil prices on domestic inflation, the trade balance, and output growth in Iran for the period 1960–1977. A macro framework is developed in which the domestic spending of oil revenues results in higher output, inflation and imports. Our results indicate that, although the overall growth remained high, the rapid increase in oil revenues in 1973–1974 was mainly reflected in higher inflation and higher imports. In the absence of any exchange rate adjustment, there was a sharp deterioration in the competitive position of the non-oil traded sector.     

Trade in factor income and the US-China trade balance

US multindoational enterprises sell considerable amounts of products to China's domestic consumers that are “made” in either China or other countries. However, these sales are not counted as US exports to China. To account for this, we propose a beyond-borders approach to measuring trade flows that explicitly considers firm ownership, termed “trade in factor income (TiFI),” that defines the US-owned factor income induced by China's final demand as US exports to China. Applying this approach to OECD data, we find that on average from 2005 to 2016 in TiFI terms, US exports to China were 20.34% and 8.21% greater, China's exports to the US were 1.64% and 16.04% less, and the US trade deficits with China were 17.4% and 32.0% less than the trade figures reported in value added and gross terms, respectively. The concept of TiFI transforms trade measures from a territory-based “made in” label to a factor income-based “created by” label.     

Inflation,interest rates,and the balance of payments during a financial reform: The case of Argentina

In order to evaluate the impact of recent financial reforms on the Argentine economy, this paper presents the results of estimating a small, monthly structural model of the Argentine economy which emphasizes the linkages between the financial system, inflation and the balance of payments. The results are used to examine the portfolio interest rate elasticities of both the financial and non-financial sectors, the determinants of the real levels of and spread between the loan and deposit interest rates, and the responsiveness of inflation and the balance of payments to various policy measures.     

Fiscal devaluations: evidence using bilateral trade balance data

We study the effects of fiscal devaluations on the trade balances of European Union countries over the 2000–2014 period using bilateral trade balance data. This enables us to control for the coincidence of tax policy measures in different countries, which is an aspect left unconsidered in previous econometric studies. A fiscal devaluation consisting of a budget-neutral tax shift in the amount of 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) from employers’ social security contributions to value added tax leads to a short-term improvement of bilateral trade balance ranging between 0.3 and 0.6% of GDP. An extrapolation of our baseline estimate to the overall trade balance yields an impact of 4.3% of GDP for the whole sample, which is slightly higher than presented in previous empirical research. Applying extrapolation to the trade deficit countries in the euro area shows that these countries’ balance of trade with the rest of the euro area improves by only 0.75% of GDP. Thus, the magnitude of the fiscal devaluation impact on the trade balance varies significantly across countries, depending on their trade openness, among other potentially relevant factors.     

全面剖析新加坡、中国公共治理现状:基于1996—2007年全球治理指数

全球治理指数是用以衡量一国政府公共治理成效方面最为权威的指标体系。新加坡是一个以华人为主体的国家,其国情与中国有一定的相似之处,而其在公共治理方面取得的傲人成绩为我们提供了一个可以学习借鉴的榜样。全球治理指数由话语权与问责、政治稳定与杜绝暴力、政府效能、监管质量、法治和遏制腐败等六个子指标构成,文章对这六个子指标从新加坡和中国的实际国情出发,逐一进行详细的比较,探寻新加坡政府成功的经验,寻找中国政府存在的差距,最后提出改进中国公共治理的建议。     

Barriers to labor mobility and international trade: The case of China

This paper quantitatively evaluates the potential impacts of removing China's Hukou system on the world economy. By denying migrant workers the right to health benefits and housing, China's Household Registration (Hukou) system presents a significant distortion to the Chinese labor market that discourages the reallocation of its labor from agriculture to non-agriculture. I find that the elimination of Hukou could increase China's real income per capita by about 4.7%. Moreover, although for most countries the impact of removing Hukou is modest (less than 1% changes in real income per capita), substantial changes in real income could take place for China's small neighboring economies. For example, the decreases in real GDP per capita are 2.7%, 3.2%, and 4.1% for Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam, while Thailand stands to enjoy a 3.8% increase in its income.     

Exchange rates and prices in Europe

Zusammenfassung Wechselkurse und Preise in Europa. — Dieser Aufsatz behandelt die Implikationen von Asymmetrien in der übertragung von Preisst?rungen bei zentralisierter Wechselkurspolitik in einem System gesteuerter Kurse wie dem Europ?ischen W?hrungssystem. Es wird gezeigt, da\ bei derartigen Asymmetrien unwiderruflich feste Wechselkurse suboptimal sind, selbst dann, wenn die politischen Ziele der L?nder identisch und die Wechselkurs- und Geldpolitiken zentralisiert sind. Im empirischen Teil werden die asymmetrischen übertragungen von Preisst?rungen aufgezeigt, indem Input-Output-Matrizen für vier europ?ische L?nder simuliert werden. Dabei ergibt sich, da\ diese Asymmetrien in der Tat betr?chtlich sind und da\ sie bei einer optimalen Festsetzung der Wechselkurse ausdrücklich in Rechnung gestellt werden sollten.

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Résumé Taux de change et prix en Europe. —- Dans cet article les auteurs discutent les implications des asymétries en transmission des perturbances de prix pour une politique de taux de change centralisée dans un système de taux dirigés comme le Système Monétaire Européen. Ils démontrent que, sous des asymétries, les taux de change fixés irrévocablement sont sous-optimum, même si les buts politiques des pays sont identiques et si les politiques de taux de change et monétaires sont centralisées. Puis les auteurs donnent de l’évidence empirique pour des asymétries en transmission des perturbances de prix en simulant des matrices input-output pour quatre pays Européens. Le résultat est que ces asymétries sont vraiment considérable; par conséquent, un cadre optimum de taux de change devrait tenir compte d’elles.

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Resumen Tipos de cambio y precios en Europa. — En este trabajo se discuten las consecuencias que tienen asimetrías en la transmisión de perturbaciones de los precios para políticas de cambio centralizadas dentro de un sistema de tipos de cambio manejados como el Sistema Monetario Europeo. Se demuestra porqué en presencia de estas asimetrías tipos de cambio fijos e irrevocables son suboptimales, incluso cuando los objetivos de política son idénticos en todos los países y las politicas de cambios y monetarias son centralizadas. A continuación se présenta evidencia empfrica de asimetrías en la transmisión de perturbaciones de los precios simulando matrices insumo producto de cuatro países europeos. Los resultados indican que estas asimetrias son importantes y que a raíz de ello un régimen de cambio óptimo debiera tomarlas en cuenta explícitamente.

     

The Technology Ladder in Development: the Singapore case

This paper by Singapore's former Deputy Prime Minister explains Singapore's industrial development in which the electronics industry was a major propellant. The growth of industry from the late 1960s cleared the backlog of unemployment, created demand for technical staff which transformed the education system and facilitated technology transfer to Singaporean companies. It also proved a developmental force as it moved into neighbouring countries when labour shortage in Singapore became a constraint. The article traces the role of multinational companies and of technical education in Singapore's ascent of the technology ladder and, more briefly, that of Malaysia, Thailand, Taiwan and Indonesia.     

Intra-industry trade : The case of Sweden

Zusammenfassung Intraindustrieller Handel: Das Beispiel Schwedens. — In diesem Aufsatz werden einige Hypothesen überprüft, die den Anteil des intraindustriellen Handels am gesamten Au\enhandel Schwedens mit verschiedenen L?ndern und Produkten der Jahre 1970 und 1977 erkl?ren sollen. Ein wichtiges Ergebnis ist, da\ der Anteil des intraindustriellen Handels am Warenaustausch mit solchen L?ndern besonders gro\ zu sein pflegt, deren Faktorausstattung und Pro-KopfEinkommen ungef?hr denen Schwedens entsprechen. Au\erdem nahm der intraindustrielle Handel zwischen 1970 und 1977 mit den L?ndern besonders stark zu, die sich am schnellsten dem schwedischen Einkommensniveau ann?herten. Ein anderes wichtiges Ergebnis ist, da\ der Anteil des intraindustriellen Handels bei den Produktgruppen in der Regel recht gro\ ist, deren Herstellung charakterisiert ist durch — einen niedrigen Mechanisierungsgrad, gemessen entweder an einer geringen Energieintensit?t oder einem hohen Anteil der Lohnkosten, was darauf hindeutet, da\ die Produkte nicht standardisiert sind. — hohe Kosten für E & F und einen hohen Anteil gelernter und gut bezahlter Arbeitskr?fte, was als ein Zeichen für eine hohe Innovationsrate und einen gro\en Bestand an firmenspezifischen technischen Kenntnissen angesehen wird, wodurch der Handel infolge einer technologischen Lücke intensiviert wird, und durch — eine Konzentration auf gro\e Betriebe, was auf Skalenertr?ge hindeuten k?nnte.

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Résumé Le commerce intra-industriel: Le cas suédois. — Dans cet article, on a examiné quelques hypothèses concernant la quote-part du commerce intra-industriel en commerce total avec des pays et des biens différents en utilisant des données pour le commerce suédois des années 1970 et 1977. Les résultats principaux sont, premièrement, que la quote-part du commerce intra-industriel semble être haute en commerce avec les pays dont la dotation en facteurs de production et le revenu per capita sont à peu près similaires à ceux de la Suède. De plus, le commerce intraindustriel s’augmentait le plus entre 1970 et 1977 avec les pays qui s’approchaient le plus rapidement du niveau de revenu suédois. Deuxièmement, la quote-part du commerce intra-industriel semble être haute pour les groupes des biens dont la production est caractérisée par — un degré bas de mécanisation, mesuré par une intensité basse d’énergie ou par une quote-part haute des co?ts de main-d’oeuvre, qui peut indiquer que les biens ne sont pas standardisés. — des co?ts hauts de R&D et par une quote-part haute de la main-d’oeuvre qualifiée et bien rémunérée, qui peuvent être interprétés comme indicateurs d’un taux haut d’innovation et d’un grand stock du savoir-faire spécifique de l’entreprise, intensifiant le commerce de la lacune technologique, et par — une concentration dans des grandes usines qui peut être un indicateur des économies d’échelle.

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Resumen Comercio intra-industrial: el caso de Suecia. — En este articulo se someten a prueba algunas hipótesis concernientes a la participación del comercio intra-industrial en el comercio total con diferentes países y en diferentes grupos de productos, sobre datos del comercio sueco para los a?os 1970 y 1977. Los principales resultados son, primeramente, que la participación del comercio intra-industrial tiende a ser alto en el comercio con paises donde la dotación de factores y el ingreso per cápita son bastante similares a los de Suecia. Además, el comercio intra-industrial creció más entre los a?os 1970 y 1977 con aquellos países que se estaban acercando más rápidamente al nivel de ingresos sueco. Segundo, la participación del comercio intra-industrial tiende a ser alta en grupos de productos caracterizados por — bajo grado de mecanización, medido por una baja intensidad en energia o una alta participación de costos laborales, lo que puede indicar que los productos no estan estandardizados. — altos costos de investigación y desarrollo (R&D) y alta participación de mano de obra calificada y altamente remunerada, lo que se interpréta como un signo de alto grado de innovaciones y un amplio stock de conocimientos técnicos específicos de la empresa, creando comercio de brecha tecnológica. — concentración hacia grandes plantas, lo que puede ser un signo de economías de escala.

     

The choice of an invoicing currency in international trade and the balance of trade impact of currency depreciation

Cross-country differences in the choice of an invoicing currency in international trade is one reason for cross-country differences in estimated exchange rate coefficients in short-run balance of trade equations. If exports are invoiced in domestic currency while imports are invoiced in a foreign currency, a depreciation will increase the domestic currency value of outstanding import contracts, and may cause the balance of trade to fall in the short run. Countries with different invoicing patterns will have different effects on the short-run trade balance following a depreciation. We explore a simple theory of invoicing currency choice, drawing inferences regarding the likely choices for 14 countries. This allows a classification of countries according to the expected short-run balance of trade effect of a currency depreciation. Empirical estimates support the hypothesized groupings based on suggested currency invoicing patterns.