Leveraging entrepreneurship through private investments: does gender matter?

Using project data from a random sample of Phase II research awards from the National Institutes of Health SBIR program, we estimate the relative probability that woman-owned firms are able to attract private investments to fund the transition of the technology developed under the sponsorship of the SBIR program to an innovation to enter the market. We find that women-owned firms are as much as 16% points less likely to attract private investment dollars compared to male-owned firms, factors excluding the size of the SBIR award held constant. Women-owned firms that received larger awards performed substantially better. Although the SBIR program has a legislated directive to increase the participation of woman-owned firms in the program, our findings suggest that it might not be sufficient to overcome market perceptions about the profitability of such investments actually bringing a developed technology to market.     

Employment growth from the Small Business Innovation Research program

This paper investigates employment growth in small firms funded by the U.S. Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program. Using data collected by the National Research Council for each of five federal agencies, our analysis shows that on average over two-fifths of all projects retained zero employees after completion and over one-third retained only one or two employees. Thus, on average, the direct impact of SBIR funded projects on employment is small, especially when compared to the mean number of employees in the firms. However, there are substantial cross-project differences in the number of retained employees that are explained by differences in the firms and their SBIR projects. We find across funding agencies that projects with intellectual property??patents, copyrights, trademarks, or publications??retained more employees after completion of the project. Also, we find that the public funding of research by the SBIR program is more likely to stimulate employment when the government created a market for the products, processes, or services developed by the research projects.     

Strategic Trade Policy through the Tax System

If conventional instruments of strategic trade policy are unavailable, the system of foreign profit taxation and transfer price guidelines may serve as surrogate policy instruments. In this paper, I consider a model where firms from two countries compete with each other on a market in a third country. Both firms have affiliates in the third country where (part of) the production takes place. I analyse optimal policy choices of the firms' residence countries aiming at strategically manipulating the competitiveness of their firms. I show that, first, countries prefer the tax exemption system over the tax credit system if there is no intra‐firm trade. Second, if the headquarters provide inputs for production in the affiliate, countries prefer the tax exemption system if the transfer price for these inputs is close to the headquarters' variable cost and if the residence country's tax rate is high. However, if transfer prices are high and the residence country's tax rate is low, I show that the tax credit system is an optimal tax policy choice for both countries. From a policy perspective, the view that the tax exemption system is generally the best policy response if domestic firms' competitiveness is a policy goal has to be qualified.     

The Political Economy of Strategic Trade Policy and the Brazil–Canada Export Subsidies Saga

In this paper we study the on‐going trade dispute between Canada and Brazil on export subsidies in the aircraft industry and the reasons for its escalation. This is a peculiar case of strategic trade policy insofar as the good, i.e. regional jets, is heavily dependent on sub‐systems that are imported in the two countries. The hypothesis that the dispute solely derives from the search for rents and externalities is therefore incomplete. Without downplaying the role of interest politics, we argue that in both countries ideas about the goals of trade policy have an important place in explaining why this dispute drags on. For Canada, the belief in a rules‐based trading regime has led it to strongly oppose violations, while insecurity about its competitiveness has led to a variety of government schemes to support firms in advanced sectors like aerospace. For Brazil, its place as a leader of the developing world acted as a rallying point for government and firms alike. The research also argues that the WTO process has actually made a resolution of the dispute more difficult by making it too costly for firms and countries to comply with the costs of losing.     

Revisiting an Evasive Concept: Introduction to the Special Issue on Competitiveness

The term competitiveness stems from the analysis of firms and is usually thought to be well defined at the firm level. Today, however, the notion competitiveness has become a prominent concept in the assessment of countries, regions and locations. The competitive advantage of nations and the competitiveness of locations have become important topics in economic policy. Interest in this field has been notably stimulated by the work of Michael Porter. Although the diversity of approaches presented in this issue may appear large to the reader, it is in reality dwarfed by the multiplicity of concepts, articles and books which have been written in reference to the term competitiveness. The vagueness of the general term, the lack of theoretical background, implicit preferences and prejudices, and finally the scope of policy recommendations made in reference to this term have induced outstanding researchers to warn that the term competitiveness of a nation could be dangerous, obsessive, elusive or meaningless.¹ The articles presented in this volume share some elements of this critique, but also demonstrate that research is being continued, and that it is indeed relevant to the design and evaluation of economic policy, most notably, the so-called Lisbon Strategy of the European Union.     

出口退税政策对出口贸易的效应分析

本文通过实证分析认为,出口退税政策对出口规模和出口结构具有明显的影响效果,在短期内可将出口退税政策作为我国调节出口贸易的重要手段,但从长期看我国应通过转变出口增长方式和出口结构,以提高出口企业的核心竞争力,保持出口贸易稳定持续发展。     

Geographic scope of proximity effects among small life sciences firms

A large number of studies have demonstrated that proximity effects from knowledge spillovers, network externalities and other forms of knowledge transfers among like firms are geographically bounded. However, only a few studies have measured the strength and geographic scope of such externalities and even fewer have done so for firms in very close proximity. In this study, we examine the size and geographic scope of proximity effects among all life science firms that have received Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) grants in the US over a 23-year period while controlling for relevant regional and firm characteristics. From our empirical analysis, we conclude that proximity effects among nearby small life science firms are strong within one-tenth of a mile distance and are exhausted within a radius of 1.5 miles. By examining the location of all firms in the sample, we offer possible explanations for the narrow geographic scope of the measured proximity effects. We also explain the significance of such findings for academic research that seeks to understand the nature of spatial externalities and for public policy.     

Competitiveness of Firm Behavior and Public Policy for New Technology Adoption in an Oligopoly

Economic growth requires that firms adopt new technologies. However, it may be insufficient or excessive in less competitive industries from the social welfare point of view. In this case, a government subsidy or tax is necessary. We analyze the optimum subsidy or tax policy for new technology adoption by firms when firms maximize the weighted average of absolute and relative profits. We do not consider that firms really maximize the weighted average, but the weight on the relative profit is used as a parameter indicating competitiveness of firm behavior. We show that the optimum policy is likely to be subsidization (or taxation) when the set-up cost for new technology adoption is large (or small). It is likely to be subsidization (or taxation) when competitiveness is large (or small), that is, it is near to perfect competition (or joint profit maximization).     

北京市文化产业竞争力的实证研究

文化产业已成为社会进步和经济增长的重要引擎,而发展文化产业的核心问题是提高文化产业竞争力。本文通过建立文化产业竞争力评价指标体系,对北京市文化产业竞争力进行了实证分析,进而发现北京市文化产业竞争力的优势和不足,并提出相关政策建议。     

Evaluation of industrial policy — The case of the Swedish textile and clothing industry

This paper evaluates the Swedish industrial policy for the textile and clothing industry and attempts to provide an interview-based method for assessing the effects of state intervention. The Swedish industrial policy, in the period 1970–1990, was general and defensive in character. In the majority of firms interviewed, government policy had either no effect at all on firm behaviour or where effects were found there were no underlying market imperfections. Only in a minority of firms was it found that the policy alleviated market imperfections and changed firms' investment behaviour in a way which was judged to be beneficial for the firms' competitiveness. Therefore, the Swedish industrial policy for the textile and clothing industry was associated with very substantial inefficiencies in the use of sizeable resources.     

流通战略产业论

流通产业在国民经济中的合理定位是关系流通产业发展的重大问题。文章认为，我国的流通产业应定位于战略产业。并从流通竞争力与国家竞争力的关系、流通产业安全等角度论述了流通产业作为战略产业的理论依据。接着分析了流通产业长期以来没有作为战略产业的原因，最后，从产业政策的视角提出了发展流通战略产业的建议。     

承诺补贴--对高新技术出口产业的一种市场进入扶持政策

发展中国家的出口产品结构现状表明其在一些高新技术出口产业上处于劣势：而从长期的动态的角度上看,鼓励这些产业的发展又是发展中国家优化本国出口产品结构的必由之路,通过模型分析我们发现,在一定条件下,发展中国家政府对本国企业承诺补贴使其净利润非负的市场进入扶持政策能达到预期的效果而补贴却无需兑现。当然此扶持政策有其自身固有的弊端．应慎重合作,同时应将最终眼光投向根本上提高本国高新技术出口产业的竞争力上。     

我国企业在南南直接投资中的竞争优势分析

改革开放以来,我国吸引外商直接投资规模逐年增加,处于世界领先地位,但对外直接投资方面则处于世界落后地位。截至2004年,我国对外直接投资存量为449亿美元,仅占全球对外直接投资存量的0.55%。根据我国企业在对外直接投资方面的竞争力水平,很难在短期内大规模进入欧美等发达国家的投资市场,但在对其他发展中国家的直接投资———南南直接投资中,我国企业无论与发展中国家的竞争对手相比还是与发达国家的竞争对手相比,均有一定的竞争优势。我国企业应当正确认识自身的竞争优势,以南南直接投资为突破口,培植国际竞争力,推动“走出去”战略。     

FDI与我国内资企业自主创新互动关系的实证分析

本文通过对1999-2007年行业面板数据的回归分析,验证了利用FDI对我国内资企业自主创新的影响。研究发现:FDI对自主创新具有正向促进功能,尤其在市场竞争激烈、内外资企业技术差距不大的行业,FDI对内资企业自主创新的推动作用更加明显;内资企业科研经费投入量与FDI推动自主创新效果存在显著相关性。我国在制订相关政策时,不仅应将利用FDI与自主创新结合起来考虑,而且在产业政策导向,以及促进科研经费投入等方面均需做出相应调整。     

The hidden hand and the license raj to An evaluation of the relationship between age and the growth of firms in India

The study that this article reports on considers the consequences of nationally variable macroinstitutional environments, and the implications of major alterations in such environments, on organizational level behavior and performance. Specifically, it examines the relationship between firm age and growth for a large sample of Indian firms using contemporary data. Firms are classified as falling into three specific categories: those incorporated, or born, prior to 1956; those incorporated between 1956 and 1980; and those incorporated after 1980.Each of these selected periods defines and denotes specific policy regimes affecting Indian industry. These policy regimes have been dictated by the national macroinstitutional environmental considerations that were in existence for the Indian economy. No significant relationship is established between the age variable and growth for firms incorporated prior to 1956, while a negative relationship is established between the age variable and growth for firms incorporated between 1956 and 1980. These were the years when the command and control industrial policy regime, popularly known as the “license raj,” was in operation in India. Conversely, for firms incorporated after 1980 when market forces began to be encouraged, and the “hidden hand” started becoming visible to some degree in the Indian context, the age and growth relationship is established to be positive.The evidence suggests that entrepreneurial behavior is an extremely important feature of contemporary Indian industry. Recent anecdotes about Indian firms, particularly in the information technology sector, suggest that there has been a resurgence of industrial activity in the country. These beliefs are well borne out by the large-scale empirical analysis that this article reports on. The younger Indian firms, those which have not been imprinted by the taints of a command and control regime, are going to drive India's industrial progress forward. The “hidden hand” is alive and well in India.Conversely, older firms, which might seem to possess a stock of capabilities developed over time, are going to find that these are unlikely to be readily deployable in the future. Older firms might have had the attributes that led to corporate success in an environment where rent seeking was the norm. In the present milieu, such abilities are not conducive to corporate progress. In particular, the “license raj” firms have no capability to succeed, as shown by the negative age and growth relationship.Additionally, the relationship between size and the growth of Indian firms is found to be negative. This suggests that a process of industrial fragmentation may be taking place in Indian industry, with small firms growing faster than larger firms and reducing the importance of larger firms in Indian industry. This has important implications for the future competitiveness of Indian industry.     

Made in America? us steelmaking in the 1990s: An American resurgence?

This article examines the improved competitiveness of the U.S. carbon steel industry, a sector that has suffered extreme economic difficulty over the last three decades. The article argues that despite the lack of a coherent national steel policy, the US steel industry has significantly increased its competitiveness relative to foreign steel competitors. Four reasons stand out. First and foremost, domestic minimills have provided intense competition for the domestic integrated sector. Secondly, the falling value of the dollar has improved the international position of all US steel firms. Thirdly, US labor costs have been reduced sharply, both through wage concessions by the United Steelworkers and massive layoffs. Finally, joint ventures with Japanese firms have provided traditional firms with cash and new technical innovations.     

An ambidextrous learning model for the internationalization of firms from emerging economies

Emerging economies are playing an increasingly important role in the global economy. The rising phenomenon of the internationalization process of firms in emerging economies, or emerging market firms, particularly their capacity to increase their presence in the markets of developed economies, has been insufficiently studied. Because of the unique characteristics of emerging economies, some assumptions of traditional international models are irrelevant. This paper provides a theoretical framework that explains the importance of different types of knowledge and the relationships between them in the internationalization process. We delineate an ambidextrous learning strategy that is contingent on different levels of firm competitiveness.     

环境税对企业竞争力的影响——基于面板分位数的研究

开征环境税将对重污染企业产生何种影响? 重污染企业对环境规制政策的敏感性是否使得环境税的"优胜劣汰"作用在重污染企业上体现得更加明显?本文基于沪深两市A股重污染行业上市公司2008～2014年的数据,采用面板分位数回归方法研究了环境税的企业竞争力效应.研究显示: 环境税与企业竞争力之间正相关,且存在分位数异质性,即对于竞争力处于低分位的企业,环境税对其企业竞争力效应为正,但未通过显著性检验;对于中分位的企业,环境税对其企业竞争力有显著的正向影响,且这种正向影响随企业竞争力的增加呈递增趋势;对于高分位的企业,环境税对其企业竞争力的正向作用呈递减趋势.本研究发现了环境税对企业竞争力的分位数异质性,为环境税效应研究提供了新的视角.     

Resource and Capability Constraints to Innovation in Small and Large Plants

In an attempt to enhance firm’s competitiveness, policy initiatives have sought to encourage more firms to innovate, with a particular focus on small firms. The success of such initiatives, however, depends on a clear understanding of the factors that are constraining innovation activity, and whether these differ for firms of different sizes. This paper examines those resources and capabilities that firms identify as constraining their innovation activity, the difference in these for small and larger plants and the actual impact of these perceived constraints on the probability of innovating and the degree of innovation success. Drawing on longitudinal data the paper demonstrates that innovation is an evolutionary process with the constraints to innovation being different for small and larger plants. From a policy perspective, initiatives to overcome constraints to innovation in small plants should extend beyond those of finance to include greater networking opportunities, cost reduction programmes and marketing strategies to increase the profit margin on new products, human resource management practices on implementing change and easier access to information about new technologies. In contrast policies to promote innovation in larger plants should focus on minimising the risk of development and enhancing access to specialist expertise.     

The Changing Competitiveness of Taiwan's Manufacturing SMEs

Taiwan's manufacturing SMEs have played an important role in promoting trade, creating jobs, and developing certain industries. Yet, they might not have performed uniformly over time, nor always looked alike. This paper explores the changing position and the source of changes of Taiwan's SMEs during the last three decades. We have found, first, that the industrial development in the 1960s was attributable more to larger firms than SMEs. It was in the 1970s and after that SMEs gained competitiveness consistently. Second, among SMEs, the smallest firms employing fewer than 10 persons became progressively less important in Taiwan's manufacturing sector until the last sub-period between 1986 and 1991. Medium-sized firms, employing 10 to 99 persons, performed very well over time. As the survival principle suggests, keen competition assures efficiency among SMEs. Then, a quick response to market signals is also vital for survival. An industrial policy not against SMEs may be the best that SMEs can expect. A stable macroeconomic environment combined with an open market having low entry barriers and low transaction costs provides the best opportunity for SMEs to grow. The Changing Competitiveness of Taiwan's Manufacturing SMEs to grow.