Active-transport walking behavior: destinations,durations, distances

This paper fills a gap in our knowledge of active-transport (AT) walking, by presenting detailed aspects of walking behavior for a medium-sized North American city. It analyzes the frequency and length of walking episodes, categorized by origins, purposes, and destinations, and also investigates distance-decay functions for major destinations. The study employs day-after recall time diary and questionnaire data from the 2007–8 Space–Time Activity Research (STAR) survey conducted in Halifax, Canada. GPS co-ordinate data enhanced the accuracy of location information, start times, and end times of the 1790 AT walking episodes, while GIS software was used to compute a shortest-path distance between the origin and destination of each episode.Home is both the most common origin and destination for AT walks, and the most common purpose is travel-to-shop rather than travel-to-work. Most walks are to non-home locations, such as retail establishments and offices. Particularly important are restaurants and bars, grocery stores, shopping centers, banks, and other services. All major destinations show strong distance-decay effects: most walks are shorter than 600 m, and very few exceed 1200 m. The assumption employed in the walkability literature, that one should restrict the ‘neighborhood of opportunity’ to walking destinations within 1000 m of the home, is seen to be well justified. However, a planning policy focus on the walker’s home neighborhood is revealed as questionable, since the majority of walking trips do not originate from the home. The relationship between urban land-use patterns and walkability may therefore require some rethinking.     

Residential dissonance and walking for transport

The concept of residential dissonance contextualizes the combined impact of built environment and individual travel and land-use preferences on travel behavior. A limited number of studies have explored the effect of residential dissonance specifically on walking. However, evidence from the active travel literature suggests that the environmental characteristics associated with diverse active travel modes differ to some extent. This study addresses residential dissonance in a framework specific for walking outcomes, as the applied neighborhood boundaries, residential preferences and the observed built environment were operationalized with measures related to walking for transport. SoftGIS, a public participatory GIS method allowing the mapping of frequently visited destinations was used to survey the daily walking behavior of 772 respondents aged 25–40 years living in the Helsinki metropolitan area, Finland. Ordinal logistic regression analyses were used to assess the adjusted odds of walking a high share of estimated monthly trips and travel distance. The identified residential dissonance groups were found to have significant associations with the walking outcomes. Associations between the observed neighborhood walkability and the walking outcomes varied by trip purpose, being more consistent with walking to utilitarian than to recreational destinations. Overall, the results support views on the interconnectedness of individual attitudes and the built environment in facilitating walking for transport.     

School site walkability and active school transport – association,mediation and moderation

Increasing active school transport (AST) can improve population health, but its association with the urban form is not fully clear. This study investigated the association of an objective school walkability index with AST and how this association is mediated by the perceived physical and social environment. 1250 Danish students aged 11–13 years completed a commuting diary and a questionnaire. The walkability index was constituted of measures of road connectivity, traffic exposure and residential density. AST’s share in all school trips was 85.4% with little difference between genders. The school walkability index was significantly associated with AST (Medium vs. Low OR 2.68; High vs. Low OR 2.49). Adding the perceived physical and social environment variables improved the model prediction of AST, with no change in the association with the school walkability index. Furthermore, distance to school significantly moderated the association between the school walkability index and AST. This research confirms the association between the urban form surrounding schools and AST. Medium and highly walkable school sites in combination with a distance to school below 2 km, no speeding traffic and many paths in the neighborhood was associated with the highest odds ratio for AST.     

Auditing street walkability and associated social inequalities for planning implications

Transport planning is gradually shifting targets towards modifying the pedestrian streetscapes that favor walking and enhance urban sustainability. We cannot be optimistic about walkability on condition that walkable streets are not evenly distributed within urban settings. Auditing the street walkability and associated social inequalities in developing countries should provide critical implications for transport planning. This paper identifies the most common indicators in existing indicator classification frameworks based on word frequency; and then establishes an indicator classification system (connectivity, accessibility, suitability, serviceability, and perceptibility) through expert panel evaluation for auditing street walkability in China. Using a case of Hangzhou metropolitan area, a set of 13 indicators are first selected by referring to the established indicator classification system and then aggregated into an integrated walkability index (IWI) through the catastrophe theory (CT) model after appropriate data treatment (standardization, normalization and correlation calculation). Camera signaling data are employed to validate the developed IWI. Results show that IWI is efficient to audit street walkability. IWI presents great heterogeneity at segment level. In general, higher walkability is observed in streets across the central and western areas. Walkability profiles of the segments are further produced by the clustering approach and the categorized groups can inform more targeted planning options. Spatial regression is finally utilized to quantify the associations between community socio-demographics and neighborhood IWI at two levels. We discover that lower neighborhood walkability would be observed in socioeconomically disadvantaged communities. These results suggest that significant social inequalities in street walkability should exist across the communities within Hangzhou metropolitan area. The developed IWI not only brings a standardized measurement of street walkability in the field of transport planning, but also paves the way for addressing the social inequalities in street design across various jurisdictions.     

Operationalization of path walkability for sustainable transportation

Most walking travel behavior research thus far has tested area-based neighborhood walkability, which is measured with meso-level urban form attributes. In need of micro-level walkability analyses that focus on individual travelers and their routes, we propose a route-oriented linear walkability concept named “path walkability.” It is defined and measured by 42 path walkability indicators that can collectively represent an individual traveler's micro-level walkability. A graphic measurement instrument for an objective and efficient on-field walkability measurement is developed. This study also sets the protocol for quantitatively integrating the walkability data measured at the segment level into path walkability indicators that are comparable at the route level. To test the applicability of the proposed path walkability, a pilot case study is conducted within a station area. A user survey is administered to collect transit users' access mode choices and walking routes to the station. The survey results help identify two groups of street segments: one used by regular walkers and the other selected by habitual auto users/occasional walkers. The routes chosen by the two groups are quantitatively and graphically compared for walkability. The analyses show a physically measurable and quantitatively comparable difference between the routes' walkability and suggest criteria for walking-conducive transit walkability for station users. Specific design recommendations for improving street-level micro-walkability for future transit-oriented developments (TODs) are added along with a future research agenda.     

Analysis of the impact of street-scale built environment design near metro stations on pedestrian and cyclist road segment choice: A stated choice experiment

The mismatch between the design of the micro-scale built environment around metro stations and pedestrian/cyclist preferences causes inconvenience and dissatisfaction. How to design streets near metro stations to provide a walking/biking friendly built environment is still a key question in promoting the use of metro systems. To identify which general attributes of the street-scale built environment are relevant for pedestrians/cyclists and increase walkability/cycle-ability, this paper reports the results of a stated choice experiment in which eight built environment attributes were systematically varied: street segment length, average number of building floors on both sides of the street, retail shops in frontage of streets, street crossing facilities for pedestrians/cyclists, width of sidewalks/bicycle paths, greenery, density of street lamps and crowdedness of pedestrian/cyclists to understand their influence on a road segment choice and preferences. A total of 803 respondents were recruited from Tianjin, China to complete the stated choice experiment through on-street face-to-face interviews. A multinomial logit model was estimated to unravel pedestrian/cyclist preferences using the stated choice data. The results indicate that pedestrians and cyclists have similar preferences for road segments with building lower than 6 floors, 50% retail shops in frontage, more greenery, lamps between 15 m and 30 m, more crossing facilities, wider sidewalk/bike lane and not crowded. These significant built environment attributes can be used in urban design projects with a walking/biking friendly built environment around a metro station.     

Thinking regional and acting local: Assessing the joint influence of local and regional accessibility on commute mode in Montreal,Canada

Accessibility indicators, measuring the ease of reaching destinations via a specific mode of transport, are increasingly used in planning and research as they support integrated land use and transport planning. Research has shown that increased local accessibility (walkability for example) is associated with an increase in walking mode share, whereas increase in public transport accessibility is associated with a greater use of public transport. Yet, while public transport agencies are promoting the combination of active and public transport options to address one's diverse mobility needs, local and regional accessibility are rarely addressed together in research or practice. This research aims to determine the joint influence of local and regional accessibility on the transport mode used for work trips in the Montreal metropolitan region, while controlling for socio-demographic characteristics. Data come from the 2013 Origin-Destination survey 2016 Canadian census, 2017 public transport data DMTI Enhanced points of interests. A multinomial logistic model is used to understand how local and regional accessibility are associated with walking, cycling or taking public transport to work across individuals. The results demonstrate that increases in both local and regional accessibility are associated with a higher probability of using sustainable modes. The predicted probabilities suggest that local accessibility is more closely associated with a decrease in car use. This study sheds light on the interaction between local and regional land use and transport systems and is of relevance to planners and policymakers wishing to develop neighborhoods that support the use of sustainable modes.     

Attitudes towards transit-oriented development: Resident experiences and professional perspectives

Transit-oriented development (TOD) provides highly efficient access to transit facilities and, when implemented in concert with streetscape changes, improves neighborhood walkability. In some regions, TOD has generated controversy, seen as impinging on the local populations' preferences for single-family housing, as well as the desire of developers to build that category of housing. In New Jersey, however, there has been increased policy support for TOD. The question addressed here is how, if at all, TOD and TOD-proximate residents' perceptions of the benefits and shortcomings of TOD are perceived and addressed by professionals involved with TOD planning and development. A qualitative research approach was used, with focus groups with residents and structured interviews with professionals. A relatively well-fitting correspondence was found: There was broad agreement by residents and professionals on the value of transit and TOD for increased accessibility and walkability. Problems were identified with retail development and traffic problems; the latter expressed as a congestion problem by professionals but as a pedestrian safety problem by residents. This information provides useful insight for planners and developers seeking to deliver TOD designs that match the preferences of residents and potential residents, and for new avenues of research on how best to achieve this.     

Using PAR to frame sustainable transport and social justice on policy agendas. A pilot experience in two contrasting Chilean cities

If sustainable transport is defined by emissions and energy, urban passenger transport in Chile could be considered “sustainable”, with two-thirds of trips made by walking, cycling or public transit. Recent studies, however, reveal that gender and equity issues are highly problematic, pointing to tensions between environmental and social sustainability.Given these tensions, a university-community collaboration, the Laboratory for Social Change, developed a pilot methodology to define and evaluate Transport Justice. We sought a relatively simple instrument, a Transport Justice report (Balance de Transporte Justo, BTJ) that could combine experiential and academic knowledge and thereby influence policy and decision-making more effectively.We used a participatory action research (PAR) approach to bring together community leaders and university researchers, and consider experiential and research data, through this “transport justice” lens. To start, we introduced the idea of “transport justice” with researchers in different disciplines and citizen organizations involved in relatively specific battles: fighting a highway, for better cycling facilities, or for reduced road speeds, for example.We focused on established issues, such as universal access, walkability, cycle-inclusion, but added children's freedom and autonomy, the wise city (older adults, heritage, identity), care and land use, and transport impacts on ecological services. Building on this collaboration, we also applied a transport justice survey in two contrasting Chilean cities, Santiago and Temuco.Our analysis reveals that, despite a planning system that favours high-income households whose members rely mainly on cars, the majority of pedestrians, cyclists, public transit and even car users would prefer a redistribution of road space and investment in favour of active transport. During the next phase of research (2020–2021), we will test how well these results are taken up by citizen organizations, politicians and senior government staff from all parties. This will allow us to evaluate its effectiveness as a policy and power distributing instrument.     

Nonstandard ridehail use in Austin

Ridehailing quickly proliferated by geography and socioeconomic status following the 2012 introduction of UberX and Lyft, but did that proliferation extend to higher-priced, nonstandard-vehicle trips? What explains nonstandard ridehail use, who uses it, and where are they going? RideAustin trip-level data, land-use codes, ACS block groups, and parking data are analyzed using GIS and statistical software to find out. Results imply the nonstandard-vehicle, RideAustin traveler varied from the standard-vehicle traveler in several important socioeconomic ways, including access to a car, household income, race/ethnicity, age, education, and neighborhood trips per capita. About 47% of nonstandard-vehicle trips were made in neighborhoods with the highest carless household rate, and 40% of those were made in SUVs. Better tips and higher star ratings imply standard-vehicle passengers had a higher level of satisfaction compared to nonstandard-vehicle passengers. Policy recommendations are made to incentivize carpooling in these extra-capacity vehicles through subsidies.     

An investigation of the attributes of walkable environments from the perspective of seniors in Montreal

The objective of this paper is to investigate the attributes of walkable environments from the perspective of seniors in the Island of Montreal in Quebec, Canada. The research is based on a combination of statistical analysis of travel diary data and field work to conduct walkability audits. The approach follows a sequence of logical steps. The first step involves the estimation of a travel behavior model walking by seniors (people 65 years or older). The results of this model, in combination with cluster analysis, are used to identify sites where the model systematically under- or over-predicts walking. Subsequently, sites are targeted for walkability audits. It then becomes possible to assess the presence or absence of attributes of built environments where walking is more or less common than other factors would predict. A walkability audit of 403 street segments was used to proof the concept in this paper. The audited items were summarized in contingency tables and tested with the chi-squared test of independence to identify streetscape elements that correlate with walking for transportation.     

Disentangling the behavioural side of the first and last mile problem: the role of modality style and the built environment

The first and last mile (FLM) problem, namely the poor connection between trip origins or destination and public transport stations, is a significant obstacle to sustainable transportation as it is likely to encourage the use of cars for FLM travel, if not for the entire trip. This study examines the role of modality style and built environment in FLM mode choice behaviour, in order to identify the key features that might invoke a travel mode shift from cars to more sustainable travel options for both mandatory and discretionary trips. More specifically, this study draws on disaggregate data from the South East Queensland household travel survey and presents a latent class choice model to unravel modality style groups. Results reveal two distinct individual-level modality style groups: (1) driving and walking oriented; (2) multimodal travellers. Individuals in the second modality style group were found to be relatively inelastic to FLM travel time for mandatory trips, while individuals in the first group were largely unaffected by built environment characteristics and highly habitual in their mode choice behaviour for both mandatory and discretionary trips. Home residence environments with high road intersection density and public transport accessibility, and home residence environments with diverse land use mix, respectively encourage individuals within the second modality style to walk for mandatory trips, and discretionary trips. To this end, when place-based policies seek to change certain built environment features, individuals in the second modality style are more likely to shift their preference from cars to more sustainable modes. Finally, our findings have practical planning implications in targeting mode shift through highlighting the importance of considering the intersection of individual modality style in a given locale and mode choice behaviour. More specifically, our findings advocate for place-based policies that seek to target particular locales with the certain modality style deemed to be more predisposed to adopting a mode shift.     

Gender differences in a walking environment safety perception: A case study in a small town of Banská Bystrica (Slovakia)

BackgroundA safe environment has been widely accepted as one of the most important walkability predictors. However, the relation between perceived safety and walkability has not been well established.AimsThis paper focuses on quantitative aspects of the relation between perceived safety and walkability, as well as examining spatio-temporal patterns of fear-related areas, with a special emphasis on gender differences among adolescents.Data and methodsData regarding walkability perception and safety perception was collected during a mapping exercise in primary and grammar schools in Banská Bystrica city (central Slovakia), with a final sample of 303 adolescents (13–16 years old, 54% girls). In the experiment, pre-prepared reply forms and maps divided into a square fishnet were used.ResultsRegardless of the time of day, girls felt less safe in public spaces than boys did, especially in the city centre. In general, fear-related spaces for boys were more dispersed than for girls, whose perceived risky areas were more compact and spatially concentrated. Girls' perception of walkability was more affected by feeling safe than that of boys, with fewer gender differences at night.ConclusionsBy mitigating and even eliminating threats observed by girls, gender differences in the perception of barriers to walking can be reduced.     

Walk-to-transit demand estimation methods applied at the parcel level to improve pedestrian infrastructure investment

Public transportation is a critical component of cities' transportation system that can be supported by a safe, complete, and connected pedestrian infrastructure. Agencies spend millions of dollars each year to improve transit ridership, yet many of the transit destinations do not have adequate pedestrian infrastructure to connect to the transit stops creating a substantial barrier to growing demand. This is particularly true in suburban areas. This paper presents a replicable methodology for estimating relative parcel-level transit demand such that analysts can conduct fine-grained evaluation and prioritization of the pedestrian network enhancements as they relate to public transit system. To this end, pedestrian infrastructure can boost transit ridership and enhance riders' safety. We rely on spatial data available in most cities coupled with land use and socioeconomic data to generate potential relative number of walk-to-transit trips for each parcel and weight the occupied road segments based on the results from mode choice and gravity models. Using this GIS-based tool, we identify road segments that have a higher potential in serving as a walking path to transit stops and prioritize gaps in existing sidewalk infrastructure. This result eliminates arbitrary sidewalk investment scoring programs and the reliance on transit walksheds to direct investment. We apply this method to a case study of the city of Knoxville and discuss the challenges and possible solutions. This approach can help city planners and engineers in data-oriented investment strategic management of sidewalk enhancement programs that support transit.     

Survey of E-scooter users in Vienna: Who they are and how they ride

In many cities around the world, electric (e-)scooters have emerged as a new means of transportation. They are often advertised as supporting modal shift towards more sustainable transportation and as a tool for enabling more equity in mobility. However, the environmental impact depends on how they are used and what kinds of trips they replace. Integration of e-scooters into urban transport systems also implicates discussions on fair road space allocation. In our study, we assess the socio-economic profiles and usage patterns of e-scooter users in Vienna, Austria. We differentiate between two basic groups of e-scooter users (renters and owners) and apply two different methods. Firstly, based on an online survey, we examine the age, gender and education of e-scooter users and we look into which kinds of trips (commuting, shopping or leisure) and which other means of transportation are replaced by e-scooter trips. Secondly, we analyse data from field observations at cycle paths in Vienna in order to determine the share of e-scooter riders and their gender distribution. We find that e-scooter users are more likely to be young, male, highly educated and residents of Vienna. According to the survey, there are considerable differences in usage between owners of private scooters and users of sharing schemes. Whereas in both groups, e-scooter trips mostly replace walking and public transport as a mode, e-scooter owners also show a considerable mode-shift from private car trips. These results implicate that e-scooter riders are additional users of cycling infrastructure. This puts further pressure on the current allocation of road space, which provides little space for active modes of transport. We conclude that city policies should address this competitive relationship adequately by allocating more space to safe and convenient cycling infrastructure and traffic-calmed zones. This could not only help ease the current challenges due to e-scooters but also provide better conditions for walking and cycling and thereby at the same time contribute to a more sustainable and equitable urban transport system.     

Retail Mobility Environments: A methodological framework for integrating retail activity and non-motorised accessibility in Zaragoza,Spain

While adequate integration of land use and transport is seen as crucial for achieving sustainable outcomes, the reciprocal interconnection between retail activity and non-motorised accessibility is yet to be adequately examined. To address this gap, this paper proposes the concept of Retail Mobility Environment (RME) and develops a methodological process for identifying and mapping RMEs, using the city of Zaragoza, Spain, as a case study. The concept of RME is developed through three methodological phases: (i) definition of non-motorised Accessibility Zones (AZs), using three indicators (walking accessibility, bicycling accessibility, betweenness); (ii) definition of Retail Zones (RZs), also using three indicators (retail density, retail diversity, retail contiguity); and (iii) definition of RMEs, where both retail activity and non-motorised indicators were weighted and combined using multi-criteria analysis. In total, four RMEs were identified and mapped: short-distance environments, motorised environments, non-motorised environments, and long-distance environments. The paper concludes with a discussion on the need to unravel the relationships between retail activity and non-motorised accessibility, in order to reach sustainable planning goals, as well as the potential usefulness of RMEs for transport policy-making.     

Walkability assessment for urban areas around railway stations along the Rhine-Alpine Corridor

Walking may be the primary mode to access a railway station, yet the walkability around stations has not been well researched. This paper explores methodologies for assessing walkability in urban areas in close proximity to a railway station. To address both the objective environmental characteristics and subjective aspects of walking, walkability indicators were developed with reference to four key criteria: urban form; design of the street; obstacles and traffic safety; and personal perception. Researchers conducted field observations of the urban neighbourhood within a radius of 800 m from selected railway stations. Subsequently, the concept of Walk Score® has been applied to cross-check research findings from the field observations and we have developed an adapted version of ‘Walk Score’ including traffic noise, pedestrian casualties, road speed limits and air quality. This is a point deduction system of traffic related obstacles from the original Walk Score® which evaluated walkability based on the distance to selected urban amenities. Research reported in this paper forms part of an EU funded project, which compared the accessibility of six railway stations in Germany, Italy and the Netherlands along the Rhine-Alpine Corridor. Using three German case studies, this paper presents key results and discusses the validity and limitation of the methodology.     

Street centrality and land use intensity in Baton Rouge, Louisiana

This paper examines the relationship between street centrality and land use intensity in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Street centrality is calibrated in terms of a node’s closeness, betweenness and straightness on the road network. Land use intensity is measured by population (residential) and employment (business) densities in census tracts, respectively and combined. Two GIS-based methods are used to transform data sets of centrality (at network nodes) and densities (in census tracts) to one unit for correlation analysis. The kernel density estimation (KDE) converts both measures to raster pixels, and the floating catchment area (FCA) method computes average centrality values around census tracts. Results indicate that population and employment densities are highly correlated with street centrality values. Among the three centrality indices, closeness exhibits the highest correlation with land use densities, straightness the next and betweenness the last. This confirms that street centrality captures location advantage in a city and plays a crucial role in shaping the intraurban variation of land use intensity.     

Not minding the gap: Does ride-hailing serve transit deserts?

Transit has long connected people to opportunities but access to transit varies greatly across space. In some cases, unevenly distributed transit supply creates gaps in service that impede travelers' abilities to cross space and access jobs or other opportunities. With the advent of ride-hailing services like Uber and Lyft, however, travelers now have a new potential to gain automobility without high car purchase costs and in the absence of reliable transit service. Research remains mixed on whether ride-hailing serves as a modal complement or substitute to transit or whether ride-hailing fills transit service needs gaps. This study measures transit supply in Chicago and compares it to ride-hailing origins and destinations to examine if ride-hailing fills existing transit service gaps. Findings reveal clustering of ride-hailing pickups and drop-offs across the City of Chicago, but that the number of ride-hailing pickups and drop-offs was most strongly associated with high neighborhood median household income rather than measures of transit supply. In bivariate analyses, transit service was not associated with ride-hailing trip ends. But after controlling for neighborhood socioeconomic status, transit dependency, population density, and employment density, we found fewer ride-hailing trips in neighborhoods where bus service dominated and significantly more ride-hailing trips where rail service was prevalent. Patterns were slightly different for overnight weekend ride-hailing pick-ups, where higher transit density predicted a greater number of trips in nearby tracts. Additional research and policy is needed to ensure that ride-hailing services provide travel options to those who need them the most and fill transit gaps in low-income communities when options to increase service are limited.     

Neighborhood characteristics and transport walking: Exploring multiple pathways of influence using a structural equation modeling approach

In studies of neighborhood effects on transport walking, residential preferences along with other personal characteristics (walking attitude, factors that affect decision to walk for transport) are important factors to consider. However, few studies have examined relationships between neighborhood characteristics and transport walking accounting for a complex suite of personal factors. This study employed a structural equation modeling approach to examine associations between neighborhood characteristics and transport walking behaviors by accounting for residential preferences, self-assessed factors that affect decision to walk for transportation, and socio-demographics; and to examine whether neighborhood effects were modified by walking attitude and residential preferences. Based on a cross-sectional phone and mail survey of 2848 residents of New York City, Baltimore, Chicago, Los Angeles, St. Paul, and Winston Salem in 2011–12, we found neighborhood characteristics had significant independent associations with transport walking, even after adjusting for residential preferences and other personal factors. Neighborhood effects on transport walking did not differ significantly by walking attitude or residential preferences. Our findings highlight the importance of neighborhood effects in promoting transport walking, and suggest that while residential preferences are important factors, they do not obviate the neighborhood effects on transport walking.