Mapping accessibility in Belgium: a tool for land-use and transport planning?

This paper compares the spatial structure of car accessibility to towns and to railway stations during peak and off-peak hours in Belgium for the country’s 2616 municipalities. A clustering method is applied. It is shown that in a highly urbanised country, the situation is far from being spatially equitable in terms of accessibility, and some areas are more favoured than others. Congestion increases spatial inequalities, differently according to absolute or relative measures of change. By means of examples, this paper shows that even simple accessibility indicators could be useful to support decisions taken by planners and politicians (e.g. as regards the development of residential, industrial and business park areas). Maps indicate the spatial inequalities in terms of accessibility to urban centres and transport nodes, and the impact of congestion on these inequalities. The absolute and relative time losses due to congestion affect different areas in different ways. The location of new developments further increases the congestion problem and the spatial disparities. This paper also insists on the caution that should be adopted when measuring and interpreting “accessibility”, its measurements, its inputs, its temporal changes in absolute and relative terms as well as the need for spatially disaggregated data.     

Walking accessibility to bus rapid transit: Does it affect property values? The case of Bogotá, Colombia

This research sheds light on the relation of bus rapid transit and residential property values within walking distance to the system. The case study was Bogotá’s Transmilenio (Colombia). This research conducted a city-wide econometric hedonic analysis with 2000 to 2004 Department of Housing Control data across different walking distances, subsystems (trunk, feeder), socio-economic strata and time. The main results showed that, with respect to the value of properties in relation to proximity, the housing market places value premiums on the properties in the immediate walking proximity of feeder lines. The analysis by socio-economic strata showed that middle-income properties were valued more if they fell closer to the system, while there were opposite results for low-income housing. Finally, analysis across time reflects slight average annual increases in property values correlated with the implementation of the system in two specific areas analyzed. Throughout the paper, the author acknowledges some of the challenges of using hedonic modeling for property value impact assessments and emphasizes that the interpretation of the results are case specific.     

Proximity changes to what and for whom? Investigating sustainable accessibility change in the Gothenburg city region 1990–2014

This paper operationalizes the concept of sustainable accessibility by emphasizing the environmental and social dimensions of sustainability from a spatial perspective. In doing so, we develop a heuristic model that focuses on the crucial dimensions of who gets access to what by using sustainable means of movement. We apply our conceptual approach in an examination of trends in sustainable accessibility for different social groups living in Gothenburg, Sweden between 1990 and 2014. On the basis of welfare-related and time-geographical considerations, we investigate accessibility by proximity for low- and high-income earners, people with small children, and elderly people. We investigate to what extent proximity to fundamental facilities increases or decreases over time, indicating changing conditions for sustainability. The results show that opportunities for living a local life and achieving accessibility via proximity differ socially. Low-income earners and the elderly generally live closer to the facilities important for daily life than do high-income earners and parents of young children. We also show that the opportunities for various social groups to obtain access by proximity change over time. For example, we observe a trend in which over time older people face reduced opportunities to reach daily facilities in their local neighborhoods.     

Assessing the role of the built environment and sociodemographic characteristics on walking travel distances in Bogotá

Planning for more sustainable mobility is an important goal for public authorities worldwide. Setting better conditions for pedestrians and cyclists has been related to many social benefits, such as less pollution and congestion. Local authorities, aware of the relationship between transport and land-use, are adopting planning tools to analyze growth in cities and their impacts using multiple indicators. This paper develops an econometric trip length model that correlates socioeconomic characteristics and built environment conditions with walking travel distances in the city of Bogotá, Colombia. A log-linear regression model was estimated using information for 2015 of Bogotá's household travel survey, along with data of employment and population by block obtained from official sources. The built environment component of the model serves to evaluate the effect of land-use patterns. A proof of concept was developed using land-use information extracted from a Cellular Automata Land-Use model calibrated for the city. From its results, some factors of the built environment were estimated and two scenarios were tested in this study. One depicts the average walking distance for households surveyed in 2015, and the other takes a simulation of land-use policy in developing a new urban area as an input. The results indicate that people living in areas were the land-use mix and job/population ratio are low, tend to have longer walking distances, suggesting the need to implement special policies that reallocate some activities and encourage higher land-use mix in the urban periphery where low-income households tend to be located. The proposed method can identify the impact of land-use policies in the distances traveled by walking, facilitating the impact assessment of land-use regulations.     

Shaping urban transport policies in China: Will copying foreign policies work?

After decades of rapid economic growth, Chinese cities now face serious urban transport challenges, such as congestion, air pollution, energy shortage, and global climate change. Efficient and equitable urban transport policies are essential to China’s sustainable development, in which urbanization plays a critical role. Can Chinese cities solve these challenges by copying or modeling the policies of other nations? This paper argues that understanding the unique contexts of Chinese cities is necessary for predicting whether policies implemented elsewhere will perform well in China. The study explores four examples of hotly contested urban transport policies. The previous experience of each policy is compared with its likely efficiency and distributional consequences in China. Specific attention is paid to how the policy context – the spatial and institutional characteristics of the Chinese cities – can affect the adoption of foreign urban transport policies in China. Suggestions regarding the four policies are proposed to policy makers, followed by conclusions and discussions.     

The Northeast Asian air transport network: is there a possibility of creating Open Skies in the region?

Unlike in the US and the European Union aviation markets, the Northeast Asian markets are still very fragmented. As a result, the passenger and air freight collection/distribution systems in the region are very inefficiently organized. The primary reason for the inefficient and inconvenient air carrier networks in the region is the restrictive bilateral air services agreements between Asian countries. This paper documents the nature and extent of the restrictive bilateral agreements among China, Japan and Korea, evaluates several bilateral or trilateral approaches for liberalizing the regional air transport markets, and makes a proposal which would increase substantially the probability of achieving an Open Skies market in the region. In particular, the current approach to liberalize the bilateral air services agreements among China, Korea and Japan has limitations even in the medium term because of China's and, to a less extent, Japan's reluctance to remove price and capacity restrictions. Therefore, as an institutional solution we propose to create bi-national (for bilateral negotiations) or tri-national (for trilateral negotiations) ‘Trade and Transport Facilitation Committees’, that can pursue a practical avenue to tie air transport negotiations with those of other goods and services trade.     

Local accessibility inequalities and willingness to walk in Latin-American cities: Findings from Medellín,Colombia

As planning for accessibility is becoming a priority for most cities, policies encouraging short-distance traveling and the use of active modes of transport are gaining force. Emphasizing short-distance travel and localized practices can produce positive sustainable outcomes, but in order to design proper public policies, a deeper understanding of the determinants of this mobility of proximity is still needed. This paper uses mobility data from the city of Medellín, Colombia, to examine the role of local accessibility and the proximate scale in the city's everyday mobility. The analysis aimed at testing whether significant efforts on improving local conditions and fostering local mobility would help to improve social exclusion and transport disadvantage situations by alleviating the need of motorized and long-distance transport. Unlike most traditional analysis, proximity is not defined by Euclidian distance but instead using travel and modal choice variables. Results show the relevance of socioeconomic variables at determining travel behaviors as well as the importance of local accessibility for social groups in situations of transport disadvantage.     

Evaluating transport user benefits and social surplus in a transport market—The case of the Norwegian ferries

The article first infers how consumer surplus in a market is linked to revenue under different assumptions about fare elasticity and when using different types of demand functions. This information is added to producer surplus in order to derive social surplus. The method, thus, produces a simple approach for authorities to assess social surplus in a market and its benefits to the users. A modified exponential demand function is applied to calculate consumer surplus and social surplus for 97 ferry services in Norway regulated by the state. The calculations are based on empirical data concerning ferry fare, revenue data at service level and reasonable assumptions about fare point elasticity for services covering different distances.In 2007, these services generated welfare for the users (consumer surplus) and the society (social surplus) amounting to about 5.8 billion NOK and 4.3 billion NOK, respectively. Consumer surplus and social surplus varied considerably amongst the services. Only 3 of the 97 services operate with positive profits and, hence, without subsidies. About 21 of the services contribute negatively to social surplus. Many of these unprofitable services are the only transport alternatives in rural areas and could be argued to continue operation according to politically decided regional measures. Implicitly, maintaining all these 21 services means that the welfare for the people in these areas is valued as up to four times greater than the welfare of the people in the rest of society.     

Liberalization of China–US air transport market: Assessing the impacts of the 2004 and 2007 protocols

This paper examines China's considerations in reaching the 2004 and 2007 Air Service Agreement Protocols with the United States (US) and the impacts of such policy on the China–US market from the perspective of China. Analysis shows that the 2004 and 2007 protocols have profound impacts on the China–US market. The two protocols have been associated with phenomenal traffic growth and intensified competition. Passengers also benefit from much more choice in terms of both airlines and routing. Over time, Chinese carriers' operating performance and financial performance have gradually improved after the liberalization expressed in the protocols. However, the industry's hub-building initiatives are still seriously challenged by competing hubs in Seoul and Tokyo which have diverted substantial number of passengers moving between the China and US markets. Such issues have to be addressed in order to create a win–win outcome for both countries.     

The impact of low-cost carriers on airport choice in the US: A case study of the Washington–Baltimore region

Previous research has shown that low-cost carriers (LCCs) may stimulate traffic at an airport by offering low fares. Using passenger survey data from the Washington–Baltimore region’s three airports, we find that the benefits of LCCs to airports extend beyond the traffic generated directly by the LCCs through their low fares. In addition, we find that the mere presence of an LCC at an airport can attract passengers, even to competing carriers. These “halo effects” from LCC presence increase the significance to airport managers of attracting LCCs in order to generate passenger demand.     

Informality and accessibility to jobs by public transit: Evidence from the São Paulo Metropolitan Region

Access to opportunities through public transport can have different impacts on individual's life especially in developing countries where opportunities are limited, job informality rates are high, and socioeconomic characteristics gaps are big. The aim of this paper is to explore the relationship between job informality and accessibility to employment by public transport in São Paulo Metropolitan Region (SPMR), Brazil. To do so, we calculate a cumulative-opportunity measure of accessibility to jobs for 633 areas within the SPMR. We use a multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression model to estimate the effect of job accessibility on the likelihood of being informally employed, controlling for individual and other area characteristics. To account for informal sector heterogeneity, two regression models are generated: one for the workers earning below minimum wage and one for the workers earning above minimum wage. The results show that accessibility to jobs is unevenly distributed across the region, largely concentrated in the core of the region, and especially in the high-income areas. The regression results show that for workers earning less than the minimum wage, a higher level of accessibility to jobs by public transport is associated with a lower likelihood of being a worker in the informal job sector. For informal workers earning more than the minimum wage, car ownership seem to be more relevant than transit accessibility in determining the likelihood of being part of the informal job sector. In light of these findings, increasing accessibility by public transport through either expanding transit services to areas with high informality rates to have a better access to formal jobs or supporting the decentralization of formal jobs may be a way to achieve reductions in informality rates, especially among those earning less than the minimum wage.     

Mega-event transport legacy in a developing country: The case of Rio 2016 Olympic Games and its Transolímpica BRT corridor

The Rio de Janeiro government, in order to prepare the city for the 2016 Olympic Games, implemented four new BRT lines (Bus Rapid Transit). One of these is the “BRT Transolímpica”, which would mainly serve the mega-event by connecting two Olympic venues, but which was justified as the integration between the northern and southern regions of the city. In this paper, the Transolímpica transport legacy, regarding urban development, was analysed to verify the influence of this BRT line on the development of its surroundings. The three-step methodology comprised a study of the surroundings of BRT stations through analyses of physical dynamics, real-estate dynamics, and relational analysis (the contextualisation of the results within the local context). The analyses cover five phases of the BRT implementation associated with the 2016 Olympic Games: candidature (2008–2010); planning and design (2010−2012); implementation, subdivided into two periods (2012–2014 and 2014–2016); and operation (2016–2018). We found that this BRT line: i) was not relevant to the occupation of the surroundings; ii) ended up accentuating the segmentation of the territory along the corridor; and iii) has been consolidating an ambiguous transport legacy in terms of urban development.     

Gender differences in a walking environment safety perception: A case study in a small town of Banská Bystrica (Slovakia)

BackgroundA safe environment has been widely accepted as one of the most important walkability predictors. However, the relation between perceived safety and walkability has not been well established.AimsThis paper focuses on quantitative aspects of the relation between perceived safety and walkability, as well as examining spatio-temporal patterns of fear-related areas, with a special emphasis on gender differences among adolescents.Data and methodsData regarding walkability perception and safety perception was collected during a mapping exercise in primary and grammar schools in Banská Bystrica city (central Slovakia), with a final sample of 303 adolescents (13–16 years old, 54% girls). In the experiment, pre-prepared reply forms and maps divided into a square fishnet were used.ResultsRegardless of the time of day, girls felt less safe in public spaces than boys did, especially in the city centre. In general, fear-related spaces for boys were more dispersed than for girls, whose perceived risky areas were more compact and spatially concentrated. Girls' perception of walkability was more affected by feeling safe than that of boys, with fewer gender differences at night.ConclusionsBy mitigating and even eliminating threats observed by girls, gender differences in the perception of barriers to walking can be reduced.     

Microstories of everyday mobilities and opportunities in Bogotá: A tool for bringing capabilities into urban mobility planning

The Capabilities Approach is gaining relevance as a theoretical approach that can contribute to consider issues of mobility and justice. The approach helps to better understand how everyday urban mobility can contribute to individuals' capabilities, that is, their ability to freely be and do what one has reason to value. However, in relation to mobility the Capabilities Approach is still missing operational tools that can consider individual specificities and go beyond aggregate evaluations of urban transport systems. Drawing on a research project on urban mobility and human capabilities in Bogotá, the paper discusses how microstories of individual everyday mobilities could be a suitable analytical tool for describing the plural relationship between mobilities and capabilities. Microstories, defined as short accounts of personal everyday mobility experiences, help to account for the features that facilitate or impede individual mobility, and consider the manifold uses of mobility as achieved by each person, according to one's individual choices. The paper discusses three potential contributions of microstories: integrating established evaluative approaches, such as accessibility measures; providing elements for the design of more effective policy actions; expressing features of the mobility experience that, despite their relevance for personal preferences and behaviours, are difficult to include within aggregate evaluations. The usability of microstories as interpretative and operational tools is examined in the light of the obtained results and in relation to policy making processes.     

The effects of travel time and cost savings on commuters’ decision to travel on public transport routes involving transfers

Urban cities are struggling with congested networks, noise and air pollution. Government agencies respond by investing in infrastructures to create integrated public transport systems. Transfers are a key element for the success of network integration. This study explores commuters’ perception of transfers by adopting Weber’s Law “Just Noticeable Difference”. Two trip attributes, travel time and cost, are investigated. Two stated-preference surveys are conducted at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Results show that, on average, users’ desire at least a 33% reduction in their current travel time and at least a 16% reduction in their current travel cost given basic comfort amenities at the interchange. For an interchange with more comfort, on average, users’ desire at least a 25% reduction in their current travel time and at least a 10% reduction in their current travel cost. The findings are expected to be used as a guideline by planners when developing integrated public transport networks. Recommendations have been made to the Auckland Regional Public Transport Plan.     

Public transport modernisation and adjustment to EU accession requirements: the case of Malta’s buses

Within the context of Malta’s progress towards EU accession, this paper aims to evaluate the major factors behind, and the consequences for, the modernisation of Malta’s public transport system. In particular, the paper focuses on the nature and role of the bus system, its structural and functional challenges, and the implications of change for its role within the wider context of the islands’ growing traffic management problems. It is concluded that the major structural and organizational changes required for EU accession will need to be complemented by a strong campaign aimed at shifting modal choice.     

Implications for CARICOM member states in the search for a ‘liberally controlled’ air transport market: The case of regional tourism to Barbados

This study presents an analysis of the state of aviation liberalisation in CARICOM (Caribbean Community) and its implications for regional tourism to Barbados as a member state in CARICOM. The evidence shows that improvements to the regulatory aviation environment in CARICOM would aid improvements in intra-regional tourism. Given the benefits that have been obtained globally, previous studies have been deductive and analysed the benefits of a less restrictive aviation environment in the region. However, the inductive approach of this study reveals that before there can be a successful attempt at any such liberalism in CARICOM, there are pre-existing constraining factors which must be addressed since they will hinder the effectiveness of any such policy. The study therefore proposes that the effectiveness of the existing regional multilateral agreement is hindered by political interference, not only in the overall context of aviation bureaucracy, but also in the business operations of the regional carriers.