Non‐governmental organisations and financial sustainability

Non‐governmental organisations (NGOs) have an important role to play in addressing the serious developmental challenges South Africa is facing today. Financial sustainability is critical for NGOs to be able to sustain their organisations and programmes. In this article key concepts and definitions related to the theme are referred to first. The second part emphasises the importance and role of sound management in building and operating financially‐ sustainable organisations (and programmes). The article also focuses on funding: minimum requirements and criteria for funding; sources of funding/income for NGOs; and funding proposals and obtaining funds. Reference is made to the importance of organisations’ long‐term sustainability plans, which should not only include relations with funders but also comprehensive strategies for earning ongoing income. In conclusion, the article calls for the establishment of a common understanding of ‘financial sustainability of NGOs’ by all concerned parties in order to maximise the impact of development on communities.     

Evaluation of hotboxes in rural and peri‐urban areas∗

A hotbox, or wonderbox as it is commonly known, is a simple time, energy and money saving device for cooking. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of wonderboxes on cooking patterns and household energy consumption in rural and peri— urban areas, and to make recommendations about the design of wonderboxes and about dissemination strategies. The research consisted mainly of questionnaires and interviews. In addition, practical experience was obtained in establishing a small wonderbox‐making enterprise.

The fuel most commonly used in conjunction with a wonderbox is paraffin, and in some cases possession of a wonderbox facilitated the transition from firewood to paraffin. There is little doubt that wonderboxes reduce energy consumption, but data on energy savings are inconsistent. It appears, however, that a wonderbox will recover its cost (usually about R12 in 1987) in less than six months.

While users of wonderboxes are appreciative of their fuel‐saving capabilities, the primary motivation in buying a wonderbox is usually convenience, time‐saving and the ability to leave food cooking while away at work. In fact, there were three times as many women in paid employment in the sample of wonderbox users, compared to non‐users.

Wonderboxes are apparently not perceived as being an inferior technology, which is often a problem with appropriate technology. They are rather seen in the context of advancement the transition from subsistence to wage employment, from noncommercial to commercial fuels, from drudgery to time‐saving. In promoting wonderboxes, this perception should be given as much or more emphasis than energy‐saving, and the drab appearance of the box should be changed.

While possession of a wonderbox has sometimes introduced changes in the pattern of food preparation and fuel use, it does not impose an inflexible and unfamiliar domestic regime on the household, which might have made wonderboxes unacceptable.

Many people are unaware of wonderboxes and their advantages, and this lack of knowledge is a constraint on dissemination. However, it is suggested in this report that the most serious constraint is that wonderboxes are unavailable except through a few, mainly non‐commercial, outlets. Two possible solutions to the problem of distribution should be investigated. The first is to make use of existing wholesale and retail networks. The second is the establishment of several small scattered wonderbox‐making enterprises in rural and peri‐urban areas, assisted by a central service organisation.     

An experiment in low‐input maize production in KwaZulu∗

The experiment aims to establish the minimum inputs needed to achieve each of three predetermined target yields for dryland maize grain production in the Nhlangwinl ward of KwaZulu in southern Natal. Three farming systems were identified and assigned target yields based on the objectives of the farmers concerned, and an interaction trial was planted to establish optimal fertilization under a variety of cultural practices (weed control, pest control, plant population). The first year's data show that without weed control, yields were consistently below 0,5 t ha^?1 even at moderate fertility levels. Although cutworm control significantly increased seedling survival rate, this was not reflected in the yield. Responses to low levels of fertilization were absent, and it was only at moderate input levels that significant crop yield responses were measured. For the subsistence farming system (where the aim is to feed the family) a yield target of

1 t ha ^?1 was set, which was nearly achieved using weed control, cutworm and stalk‐borer control, and no fertilizer. A return of 42c to 58c per hour of labour expended was achieved. A yield target of 4 t ha ^?1 set for the commercial farming system was not achieved by any of the treatments. For the semi‐commercial farming system (where a small quantity of produce is sold, over and above family requirements) a yield target of

2 t ha ^?1was set. This was achieved using weed control, cutworm, and stalkborer con trol, and a fertilization level of 250 kg ha ^?1 2:3:2(22) (0,5% Zn) and a topdressing of 100 kg ha ^?1 of limestone ammonium nitrate (28% N). A return of 79c to 83c per hour of labour expended was achieved. Further trials will show whether these yield levels occur consistently in the long term.     

Technology transfer in small‐scale dryland crop production: Future challenges

The study focuses on maize technology transfer in a typical homeland maize‐growing area. Two thirds of maize growers were women. Thirty per cent of producers were over 60 years of age, 20 per cent were illiterate and 50‐60 per cent were living in varying states of poverty. There was insufficient contact and intensity of contact with all sources of farming information. The ‘trickle down’ process from progressive to less progressive farmers has been unsuccessful.

Less than half of the farmers were implementing practices according to proven recommendations. This was related to a lack of knowledge. Most farmers did not realise that all practices were interrelated, resulting in below optimum yields.

Innovativeness was explained by greater farming resources, farming knowledge, contact with information sources and level of education, while yield per ha was also explained by greater farming resources, as well as the presence of the male head of household and contact with extension workers.

Farming populations are not homogeneous relative to farming practices and technology has been developed to suit the more progressive farmers. Future technology transfer strategies should be based on a targeted approach to reach both progressive and low‐access and resource‐poor farmers.     

The effect of HIV on health care in sub‐Saharan Africa

This article is concerned with the hitherto neglected area of the effect of HIV on the delivery of health care in sub‐Saharan Africa. The task is hampered by a lack of usable data. In most countries there have been no sentinel HIV surveys, so we have no clear idea of the magnitude of the epidemic. However, it is certain that HIV will alter the demand for health care, and the supply and quality of services.

Demand will grow as infected adults and children seek care. Most HIV‐related illness is found in people who would not normally require care, and therefore creates additional demand. Demand for care will also be determined by the availability and accessibility of services. Ironically, the middle‐income countries may face higher bills, and in this sense the effect of the HIV epidemic may be worse in the more developed world.

The supply of services will be affected by increased morbidity and mortality among health care workers. This is already happening. The generous terms and conditions of service that most governments offer to workers in the public sector will make the problem worse.

HIV has served to improve the quality of health care in most of the developed world. Patients have sought to take control over their own care, and staff have been more rigorous in taking universal precautions. But in developing countries external aid often determines how health care is organised, and money spent on AIDS is diverted from other areas. This may also be true of local funding.

The effect of HIV on health care is lamentably under‐researched. This is particularly worrying as the effects of HIV will be felt first by the health care sector. The problem must be confronted urgently from the point of view of the suppliers of health care services, the users, and the policy‐makers.     

Basic socio‐economic elements of a development theory for traditional societies

Notwithstanding the existence of various ‘development paradigms’, little has been done to analyse the fundamental economic determinants of development.

Most important is the basic functioning of supply and demand which, in the traditional society, is determined by religion, customs and rules, resulting in a limited choice and volume of consumption, as well as limited production.

Stimulation of the economy can according to community development principles, be brought about by an increase in demand (needs) to serve as motivation for increased production.

Higher production though, necessitates a change in traditional values and the development of abilities and skills. This is primarily the field of community development.     

The Post‐Mao economic reform in China: A Korean view

Abstract

Previous studies that were concerned with the impact of depreciation of the ringgit on the Malaysian trade balance employed data either between Malaysia and rest of the world or between Malaysia and each of her major trading partners. Specifically, the bilateral trade balance between Malaysia and the US is shown to be insensitive to the real bilateral ringgit–dollar rate. In this article we wonder if disaggregating trade flows between Malaysia and the US by commodity could help us to discover any significant effects that the real exchange rate could have. We consider 101 industries that export from US to Malaysia and 17 industries that import from Malaysia. While majority of the industries showed short-run sensitivity to the real bilateral exchange rate, short-run effects lasted into the long run almost in half of the industries in both group.     

Financial relations between the RSA and the independent and self‐governing states

The essence of the recent dispute between RSA and Ciskei lies in the financial arrangements between the two countries and in this article financial relations in Southern Africa are thus analysed.

It becomes apparent that the independent and self‐governing states have a limited own revenue base and that financial transfers from the RSA Government play an important role. These transfers should, however, not totally be seen as grants, since a large part of them stem from spillover effects that actually obligates the RSA Government to compensate the countries concerned.

One of the main problems is the arbitrary provision of requited transfers (obligations) and unreauited transfers (grants) as aggregate amounts such as the statutory and additional amounts. More use should also be made of conditional or specific purpose transfers. The present financial arrangements are far from optimal and can easily lead to misunderstanding and confusion.     

Debates over labor reforms in Post‐Mao China (1978–1995)

Why was it that, from 1978 to 1995, the central government of the People's Republic of China did not successfully implement labor reforms? The paper explains the outcomes of China's labor reforms in a statist perspective. The hypothesis is that, despite labor reforms of 1978 to 1995, due to the limited autonomy of the central government, China has not successfully formulated and implemented employment reforms. Ideological coherence and organizational unity among the central party‐state elites are the preconditions for the autonomy, or more accurately, relative autonomy of central governments. Conflicts and debates among various factions destroy the cohesion of the central government, weakening the relative autonomy of the central government to act as a coherent entity.     

Land redistribution in KwaZulu‐Natal: An analysis of farmland transactions in 1997

This article presents the results of a census survey of all farmland transactions in the province of KwaZulu‐Natal during the calendar year 1997. Data recorded by the Deeds Registry were stratified and analysed by race, gender and mode of land acquisition. It was estimated that 372 995 hectares, or 7 per cent, of the area available for redistribution have been transferred to new owners. Of this, just 0,43 per cent of the available area was redistributed to disadvantaged people. Although low, the rate of redistribution appears to have increased dramatically since 1995. The quality of land varied markedly across different modes of land redistribution. Land purchased with government grants was of a much lower agricultural quality than land purchased privately. Relative to government‐assisted transactions, private market transactions accounted for a slightly smaller share of the area transferred to disadvantaged people but for a much larger share of the value of land redistributed. Inheritance and land donations accounted for the remaining redistributed land. Women were well represented in land transactions involving inheritance but were underrepresented in transactions financed with mortgage loans. In general, they acquired farms of much smaller size and land of lower quality than men.     

Lifting physical and institutional barriers to development on a small‐scale irrigation scheme

If it is accepted that both the system and the individual can act as barriers to development at the micro‐level, development policy could be aimed at identifying the major causes and sources of inefficiency and removing the existing barriers to the achievement of efficiency.

In this article the major barriers to system efficiency are identified as being physical and institutional, and they include the physical structure of irrigation schemes, the land tenure system and the marketing structure. A theoretical discussion of each of these factors is used to propose more specific strategies for micro‐level rural development.     

The influence of Newtonian‐Cartesian scientific thinking on the interpretation of welfare and development

Development planning is essentially an exercise in strategy formulation and implementation. The first step in strategy formulation is the design of effective practice: doing the right things. Therefore strategic thinking requires that the context be considered before the particular. This requires a metaperspective.

In scientific practice such a metaperspective requires first of all an inquiry into the appropriateness of the paradigms, theories and models that are used in research and practice. The purpose of this article is to contribute to the vibrant discourse on development and welfare theory by proposing that this discourse is caught in the thought trap of the Newtonian‐Cartesian scientific culture of reductionism, disciplinarity and multidisciplinarity.

The evolution of scientific tradition from classical to Newtonian‐Cartesian is reviewed and also the contrasting societal and developmental implications of changes in this tradition. Tönnies's social transition theory and technological innovation are used to illustrate the need for a synthesis between the classical and modern traditions of science, in particular between the search for wisdom and understanding which dominated classical science and insight and specialised knowledge which regulate progress in modem science.

It is proposed that the social systems approach (the ‘soft’ systems approach) can provide some guidelines for a metaperspective (a grand synthesis) for studies in social welfare and human development The social systems approach is transdisciplinary and its process of synthesis differs fundamentally from the multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary procedures that are often used to provide a synthesis between projects and disciplines in development planning. Its proposed synthesis also differs in important respects from the structure‐functionalist approach ofTalcott Parsons.     

Reform of one‐channel marketing systems: Expanding the debate and agenda for research

The recent exchange between Groenewald and Brand on the report tabled by the Committee of Inquiry into maize marketing arrangements makes for interesting reading. Professor Groenewald raises a wide range of important conceptual and pragmatic concerns, with the stinging conclusion that the Commission did not achieve its primary mission and an opportunity for substantive reforms was lost. Dr Brand countered by pointing out that the Commission focused on changes that were politically acceptable and would ‘set in motion a movement towards a more market‐oriented situation’. There is wisdom in the comments of both authors and the time is ripe for agricultural economists in South Africa to address an expanded research agenda on these issues.

At the outset, it should be made clear that no special knowledge of the maize marketing system in South Africa is claimed. However, the current debate bears many similarities to that which is currently engulfing agricultural policy observers in Canada and the United States. Agricultural reform and the need to remain competitive in an increasingly open world market is a theme that has thrust itself on policy analysts. In Canada, agricultural economists have engaged in an active professional debate on the merits of supply management and one‐channel marketing systems over the past ten years. Although the strengths and weaknesses of these systems have been well documented from theoretical and conceptual bases, the major impetus for change has come from empirical analysis and the realization that Canada had created an environment which fosters unproductive agricultural sectors, International uncompetitiveness, and food prices that penalize consumers, expecially those in low-income categories. In some cases, prices are so far out of line with the United States that border crossings are deluged on weekends with Canadian shoppers returning home with goods purchased. Food items, expecially those under one-channel supply management marketing systems, figure prominently in the goods brought back to Canada. The system of supply management is in crisis and even the marketing boards have acknowledged that significantly more market orientation is necessary.

Agricultural economists can make a significant contribution to the policy debate in South Africa. Brand is quite right in pointing out that the process will be evolutionary — what is politically unacceptable today may become the policy of tomorrow. The time frame of policy reform fits well into that which is needed to conduct empirical research. But this research must focus on the important issues, even though they may be unpopular. Groenewald makes an important first step in this direction by drawing attention to the issues of productivity and pricing. However, more steps are needed. A critical issue, from my perspective, is the capitalization of benefits from protective agricultural policies.     

Sustainable rural livelihoods? Evaluating the potential of small‐scale aquaculture in the Western Cape

Rural unemployment is exacerbated by the decrease in demand for farm labour on commercial farms; therefore, alternative livelihood opportunities for rural dwellers require investigation. The production of fish inform dams offers such an opportunity. A research project was undertaken to evaluate the potential of small‐scale aquaculture to create sustainable rural livelihoods. An existing aquaculture project in De Dooms in the Western Cape was evaluated in terms of its ability to provide an alternative source of income and a cheap animal protein source. A needs assessment of the local community and an evaluation of the pilot project in terms of its potential to meet the identified needs were carried out. The results indicated that, subject to the implementation of the recommendations, the project has the potential to create sustainable livelihoods, but that sociopolitical issues should be accorded equal consideration to biotechnical and economic feasibility.     

Education and development: The role of non‐formal education,especially in developing countries

Education plays an important role in development, especially in a developing country. To develop the skills and knowledge of the large percentage of the people outside the reach of formal education, and to offer education programmes which can easily adapt and respond to the specific and immediate needs of a developing community, out‐of‐school programmes should be considered.

This article explains how non‐formal education, that is organized and systematic education offered outside the framework of the formal education system, could complement formal education, and should be organized to support integrated, community‐based development Briefly discussed guidelines for the planning of non‐formal education are the horizontal and vertical integration of all activities, extensive community involvement, a self‐help approach, the use of front line workers and the maximum utilization of existing facilities.     

South Africa's infrastructure service delivery needs: The role and challenge for public‐private partnerships

South Africa's development challenges include over R100 billion needed in investment in infrastructure over the next ten years. Municipalities lack the institutional and financial capacity to address this alone and have to raise private sector finance to supplement their own resources and government grants. The borrowing of capital requires a well‐run administration that is able to raise sufficient revenue to meet all running costs, including loan redemption. Municipalities are showing increasing interest in municipal service partnerships (MSPs), including public‐private partnerships (PPPs), as a way of improving efficiency and accessing capital markets. This raises a number of challenges that include understanding and dealing with the continuing negative perceptions of the role of the private sector; clarifying the roles of the private sector and the government, especially local government; and addressing those issues necessary to produce effective and efficient MSPs in South Africa.     

Some socio‐economic characteristics of tribal and private farmers in the Hlanganani district of KwaZulu*

A survey of eighty‐nine tribal farmers and nine private farmers in the Hlanganani district of KwaZulu was conducted. Results show that agriculture is dominated by elderly tribal farmers operating land allotments of less than one hectare in size primarily for home consumption purposes. Private farmers control much larger farms and are less dependent on off‐farm income.

Almost one half of the tribal farmers interviewed favoured private ownership of grazing and arable land. Traditional leaders favoured the reallocation of land to fewer people and the conversion of grazing land into arable land as a solution to the small farm size problem.

Although education levels were similar among both groups of farmers, most private farmers invested in soil conservation whereas the majority of tribalfarmers did not. Crop losses caused by livestock on arable lands (a result of the tribal tenure system) were identified by tribal farmers as the most important factor restricting increased crop production.     

Are home‐based enterprises ‘worthwhile’? The informal sector with reference to social security

This article arises from a countrywide survey on ‘affordable social provision’. Since people's ability to provide for the contingencies in their lives usually depends on their involvement in the formal employment market, the question may be asked to what extent the increasing numbers of those not directly connected with the world of work can make provision for themselves. In order to determine that, the possibilities for the generation of income outside the formal market have to be established. In this article people's views on the economic viability of certain activities that can be undertaken at home are analysed.

Making and selling of handiwork and clothing were largely seen as economically worthwhile, while services such as child minding, small‐scale removals, etc, were most often mentioned under the heading ‘worthwhile for other reasons’. Important predictors of the particular choice made were respondents' domicile — metropolitan or non‐metropolitan — the type of home tenure arrangements they had, where they had spent their childhood (rural area, town, etc) and education.

The generally positive views of metropolitan dwellers may indicate high expectations regarding the potential of informal sector activities. Opportunities afforded by, for example, deregulation, more accessible credit advice on and training in business management, etc, could help to meet such expectations. Such opportunities could also promote income generation for those with tenuous or no links with the formal market     

Continuity with change: A review of Zimbabwe's public sector urban low‐income housing production system

This article reviews Zimbabwe's public sector urban low‐income housing production system, in over one hundred years of urbanisation marked by changes in governments, political economies, ideologies and urban systems. By examining important features in organisation, construction, costing, finance and allocation, the study reveals that in essence. Zimbabwe's public sector housing production system has not changed significantly since the early years of urbanisation. The consistency and resilience of the more important features, both in the colonial and post‐colonial eras, overshadow what changes there have been.