Implementation of EEC consumer protection directives in Spain

The paper informs about the state of Spanish law before and after Spain's entry into the European Community. Spanish law already included consumer protection in its constitution as well as an ambitious, yet defective, Act on Consumer Protection (LGDCU). After entry into the EEC, Spain had to adapt Community directives on consumer protection to the Spanish legal order. However, as the author demonstrates in detail, this process has been slow, complicated, and in many areas incomplete or even against Community obligations. The balance sheet of Spanish consumer policy after the completion of the Internal Market may be said to be negative. The principle of subsidiarity may allow for a renewal of consumer policy by strengthening national initiatives.

---

Die Umsetzung der EG-Richtlinien zur Verbraucherpolitik in Spanien

Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag berichtet über den Stand des spanischen Verbraucherschutzrechtes vor und nach Eintritt Spaniens in die Europäische Gemeinschaft. Vor Eintritt hatte Spanien weitgehende Verbraucherschutzvorschriften in seine Verfassung und in das allgemeine Verbraucherschutzgesetz von 1984 aufgenommen, die umfassende Ziele enthielten, welche allerdings rechtstechnisch mangelhaft formuliert waren. Mit dem Eintritt Spaniens in die Gemeinschaft übernahm es die Verpflichtungen aus den relevanten Verbraucherschutzdirektiven. Ihre Umsetzung ging jedoch zögerlich und mit erheblichen zeitlichen Verlusten einher. Einige Richtlinien sind bislang noch nicht fristgerecht umgesetzt worden. Insgesamt zeichnet der Autor ein eher kritisches Bild vom Stand des spanischen Verbraucherschutzrechtes nach Eintritt in die EG. Das Subsidiaritätsprinzip könnte zu einer Wiederbelebung nationaler Initiativen führen.

     

Implementation of EEC consumer protection directives in Italy

The paper gives an overview of the specific method used in Italy to implement Community legislation, including consumer protection directives. It analyses the implementing legislation on product liability, competition law, adertising, and financial services. As a result Italian law has greatly changed for the benefit of the consumer. The authors criticize the fact that Italian law has not yet enabled consumer associations to take action before courts of law in order to stop illegal or misleading marketing practices.

---

Umsetzung der Verbraucherschutzrichtlinien der EG in Italien

Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag befa\t sich zunächst mit der besonderen italienischen Umsetzungsgesetzgebung von EG-Rechtsakten einschlie\lich der Richtlinien sum Verbraucherschutz. Er untersucht dann die italienischen Regelungen zur Produktsicherheit- und haftung, Haustürgeschäfte, Wettbewerbsrecht, Werbung und Finanzdienstleistungen. Im Ergebnis verbessert der italienische Gesetzgeber den Rechtsschutz des Verbrauchers, etwa durch Einführung eines Widerrufsrechts auch für im Fernabsatz geschlossene Verträge und durch generalle Regeln über die Transparenz von Banktransaktionen. Im Beneich Produkthaftung hat der Gesetzgeber dagegen keine der Optionen ausgeschöpft. Die Autoren kritisieren, da\ bislang in Italien keine Verbandsklage der Verbraucher gegen unlautere und irreführenden Praktiken von Anbietern besteht.

---

---

Simonetta Cotterli has written the section on financial services, Paolo Martinello on product liability and competition law, and Carlo M. Verardi on advertising.     

International entrepreneurial marketing strategies of MNCs: Bricolage as practiced by marketing managers

The extant research lacks information on entrepreneurial marketing in large international firms. This study explores the international entrepreneurial marketing strategies of multinational corporations (MNCs), and its results reveal that MNC marketing managers use bricolage to develop international entrepreneurial marketing. A novel finding of the study is that the international entrepreneurial marketing strategies of MNCs include co-innovation, accelerating customer value, and international expansion based on regional market leadership. Marketing managers use both parallel and selective bricolage in their international entrepreneurial marketing. Environmental uncertainty and entrepreneurship culture are important drivers of the implementation of bricolage to develop international entrepreneurial marketing. The research findings can inform MNC management of the options available to utilize corporate venturing to facilitate bricolage and in turn to realize international entrepreneurial marketing strategies.     

A comparison of the WHO and the UK codes of practice for the marketing of breastmilk substitutes

In 1981 the WHO approved a code of practice for the marketing of breastmilk substitutes, and in 1983 the UK Government sponsored the introduction by the manufacturers of a code which applied the WHO Code to the UK. The government used a drafting by sellers method which is almost identical to the procedure used by the Office of Fair Trading to draft the codes it sponsors. The text of the UK Code diverges from that of the WHO Code so that the present marketing mix for infant formula in the UK is protected: advertisements in the Health Service, informational materials for mothers, free samples for mothers, donations to Health Staff, an advisory service directly to mothers, and point of sale promotion. In effect, the UK Code renders the WHO Code inoperative in the UK.The comparison of the two codes suggests that the drafting by sellers procedure used for OFT-sponsored codes and adopted by the government for the UK Code of Practice for Infant Formula, results in codes that are weak ones from the point of view of the consumer. The drafting procedure eases the introduction of codes but also conserves the status quo in the market. The procedure precludes a balanced judgement between the interests of the consumers and the producers.

---

Ein Vergleich der internationalen und der englischen Richtlinien für das Marketing von Muttermilch-Ersatzprodukten

Zusammenfassung Im Jahre 1981 erließ die Weltgesundheitsorganisation internationale Richtlinien für das Marketing von Muttermilch-Ersatzprodukten. Zwei Jahre später unterstützte die britische Regierung die Einführung entsprechender nationaler Richtlinien für das eigene Land. Wie bei anderen britischen Marketing-Richtlinien wurden sie auch hier von den Herstellern selbst formuliert.Der Text der britischen Richtlinien weicht von den internationalen Richtlinien dahingehend ab, daß das derzeitige Marketing-Mix für Säuglingsnahrung in Großbritannien geschützt wird, nämlich Werbung im Gesundheitsdienst, Informationsmaterial für Mütter, Probepackungen für Mütter, Werbegeschenke an das Krankenhauspersonal, ein Direktberatungsdienst für Mütter sowie Verkaufsförderung in den Geschäften. Im Ergebnis werden damit die internationalen Richtlinien für Großbritannien außer Kraft gesetzt. Der Vergleich der beiden Richtlinien führt zu der Schlußfolgerung, daß die starke Beteiligung der Hersteller bei der Erarbeitung der Richtlinien, so wie sie in Großbritannien üblich ist, zu Richtlinien führt, die unter dem Gesichtspunkt des Verbraucherinteresses zu schwach sind. Das Verfahren erleichtert zwar die Einführung von Richtlinien, sichert aber zugleich den Status quo auf dem einzelnen Markt. Es verhindert dadurch einen angemessenen Ausgleich zwischen den Interessen der Nachfrager und Anbieter.

---

---

Robert Hamilton is a Lecturer in Marketing at the University of Lancaster, Gillow House, University of Lancaster, Bailrigg, Lancaster, UK, LA1 4YX, and Dale Whinnett a Research Assistant at the Trent Business School, Nottingham, UK, NG1 4B4.     

International trade intermediaries and the transfer of marketing knowledge in transition economies

The process of market reform that characterizes the move away from regimes of central planning in transition economies creates a need for managers to acquire the techniques and skills of marketing. In contrast with an extant emphasis on inward direct investment, this study examines the role played by international trade intermediaries in the transfer of marketing knowledge across borders. Data collected from manufacturers in central China reveal that the value of marketing knowledge transferred is contingent upon intermediary performance of export marketing services and the likelihood of intermediary replacement.     

利用高级在轨系统等时性业务实现伪码测距

本文对高级在轨系统（AOS）提供的等时性业务进行了深入的研究，讨论了利用AOS等时性业务实现伪码测距的可能方案。经过分析比较，得出利用插入业务实现伪码测距是目前条件下最好的方案，并通过实验从原理上验证了该方案的可行性。     

International marketing strategies in industrial clusters: Insights from the Southern Hemisphere

This paper examines co-operative marketing strategies among clustered-based firms in the most important wine producing and exporting countries in the ‘new world’. The research examines the development of active inter-firm marketing co-operation undertaken by firms to achieve competitive positioning in international markets. The results of a survey of managers located in Argentina, Australia, Chile and New Zealand are presented. The empirical contribution comes from the unique comparative data from regional clusters in four countries which are seen internationally as innovative producers and marketers, all strongly export-oriented, but at different stages of economic development and positioning in the global marketplace. In addition, this study makes a significant contribution to agglomeration theory by confirming the importance of sharing marketing knowledge to build sustainable competitive advantage in international markets. The theoretical contribution builds understanding of international marketing strategies within the Southern Hemisphere group of emerging countries and offers new insights on international marketing practices for emerging firms from both the developed economies in the Pacific Ocean region and Latin American emerging economies.     

Association of African states with the EEC

The Yaoundé Agreement, which was signed on July 20, 1963, by the EEC and 18 African states as well as Madagascar, and became effective on June 1, 1964, is due to expire on May 30, 1969. According to Article 136 of the EEC treaty and Article 60 of the Yaoundé-Agreement provisions are to be made one year before expiry for a new period in the light of the results achieved and in accordance with the principles of the treaty. We have been making inquiries into the work so far done under the treaty and the state of the negotiations about its renewal.     

The foreign trade policy of the EEC

The union of the six states of the EEC has brought the largest trading power of the world into being in Europe. Its pesltion will be strengthened further by the accession of Great Britain and other states. The author, who is a Vice-President of the Commission of the European Communities, analyses the problems facing the EEC when concluding trade agreements and in Its relations with other states.     

—种BCH码的新型译码方法及其FPGA器件实现

介绍了一种新型的BCH码的译码方法,并给出了该译码算法的FPGA器件实现方法。与传统的译码算法相比,该算法具有译码速度快、硬件实现复杂度低等优点,从而使得该译码器具有速度快、体积小、性能稳定等特点。     

The common transport policy of the EEC

A free market in the sphere of transport is to be established in the European Community by 1992. What conditions prevail today in this sector and what steps must be taken in order to establish a workable Common Transport Market?     

Cheers in China! International marketing strategies of Spanish wine exporters

Due to the globalization of the wine sector and the increase in competition, multinational enterprises (MNEs) and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have increased their presence in emerging markets, especially in China. This paper presents an in-depth analysis of the specific case of Spanish wine exporters to China, and examines the different external and internal factors impacting their international marketing decisions. Employing the case-study methodology, it is revealed that external factors force companies to adapt their back labels, distribution channels, prices and communications, while the internal factor of corporate strategy is the main cause for the standardisation of their product ranges, brand names, main labels and positioning. This paper also exposes the need to include the variable of firm size as an internal factor that is observed to have a major effect on the development and control of the marketing mix, as well as access to Guanxi networks.     

Making a market for alternatives: marketing devices and the qualification of a vegan milk substitute

ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper is to describe, conceptualise and critically discuss how and with what consequences marketing is used to construct a mass market for vegan substitutes. Drawing on the concepts of the marketing device and qualification, it shows how Oatly – a Swedish company making oat-based products – enrols three sets of marketing devices, i.e. digital media, packaging and stores, to simultaneously ‘alternativise’ and ‘convenienise’ its range of vegan products. The result is the material and discursive construction of a range of vegan products that is qualified as different enough from conventional dairy products to be an attractive alternative, but similar enough to fit into existing practices of shopping for food, cooking and eating. By qualifying products along multiple registers, Oatly constructs ‘plastic’ products, which can be consumed, for various reasons, by various groups of consumers thus enacting a multi-niche market for its products.     

The Need for Developing an Ethical Code for the Marketing of International Tourism Services

No abstract available for this article.     

传统营销、现代营销、关系营销互融的成功实践

<正> 在渤海之滨——天津塘沽,有一家企业在短短的3年内发展成为了中国北方最大的建材专业批发市场,它就是天津华北建材陶瓷批发市场(以下简称"华北陶瓷市场")。华北陶瓷市场是由天津市塘沽区华翔商贸有限公司投资1.2亿元与当地政府联合兴建的大型建材陶瓷专业批发市场。该市场主要经营建筑陶瓷系列产品及卫生洁具、进口及国产大理石和花岗岩产品等,市场内的300多家承租客商来自全国14个省市自治区,产品销售辐射河北、山西、内蒙古、山东以及东北地区。2000年该市场被天津市政府评为"先进市场",2001年被评为天津市商品交易市场20强之一。