Information Asymmetries and Consumption Decisions in Organic Food Product Markets

Organic agriculture is a rapidly growing segment of most developed agricultural economies around the world. To stimulate growth and circumvent supply‐side market failures that emerge when organic products are not segregated, governments have introduced regulations concerning the certification and labeling of organic food. While certification and labeling satisfy market demand for information provision, the introduction of these activities creates incentives for the mislabeling of conventional food as organic. Despite the incentives for, and the incidence of, mislabeling in organic food product markets, this issue has not been analyzed systematically. In fact, the possibility of mislabeling has been customarily neglected by economic studies of markets for credence goods in general. This paper addresses the issue of product type misrepresentation in organic food product markets and develops a model of heterogeneous consumers that examines the effect of mislabeling on consumer purchasing decisions and welfare. Analytical results show that, contrary to what is traditionally believed, while certification and labeling are necessary, they are not sufficient for alleviating failures in organic food product markets. The effectiveness of labeling depends on the level of product type misrepresentation. Consumer deception through mislabeling affects consumer trust in the labeling process and can have detrimental consequences for the market acceptance of organic products. When extensive mislabeling occurs, the value of labeling is undermined and the organic food market fails. L'agriculture biologique est un secteur qui prend rapidement de l'expansion dans la plupart des pays agricoles industrialisés. Pour stimuler la croissance de ce secteur et éviter les problèmes d'offre qui surviennent quand il n'y a pas ségrégation des denrées, les gouvernements ont adopté des règlements sur la certification et l'étiquetage des produits biologiques. Même s'ils satisfont la demande d'informations sur le marché, la certification et l'étiquetage ouvrent la porte à l'usage abusif du terme “biologique” sur l'étiquette des denrées ordinaires. Or, bien que les producteurs soient tentés d'utiliser le terme à tort et à travers et en dépit des incidences d'un tel comportement, le phénomène n'a jamais été analysé de manière méthodique. De fait, les analyses économiques sur le marché des denrées alimentaires, en général, négligent souvent la possibilité de fausses déclarations sur l'étiquette des produits. L'article que voici aborde ce problème sur le marché des aliments biologiques et propose un modèle qui tient compte des effets d'un étiquetage fallacieux sur les achats et le bien‐être de consommateurs hétérogènes. Les résultats de l'analyse indiquent que, contrairement à ce qu'on croit, la certification et l'étiquetage, bien que nécessaires, ne suffisent pas à atténuer les problèmes observés sur le marché des aliments biologiques. En effet, l'efficacité de l'étiquetage dépend du nombre de fausses déclarations. La déception qui résulte d'une fausse déclaration ébranle la confiance des consommateurs dans le système d'étiquetage, si bien que les produits biologiques sont mal accueillis sur le marché. Quand les fausses déclarations se multiplient, l'étiquette perd sa valeur et il devient impossible de commercialiser les denrées biologiques.     

Using Ex Ante Approaches to Obtain Credible Signals for Value in Contingent Markets: Evidence from the Field

While contingent valuation remains the only option available for measurement of total economic value of nonmarketed goods, the method has been criticized due to its hypothetical nature. We analyze field experimental data to evaluate two ex ante approaches to attenuating hypothetical bias, directly comparing value statements across four distinct referenda: hypothetical, "cheap talk,""consequential," and real. Our empirical evidence suggests two major findings: hypothetical responses are significantly different from real responses; and responses in the consequential and cheap talk treatments are statistically indistinguishable from real responses. We review the potential for each method to produce reliable results in the field.     

Rural Banking and Landless Labour Households: Institutional Reform and Rural Credit Markets in India

Financial liberalization is a key component of programmes of orthodox structural adjustment. Financial reforms include, among other things, the removal of controls on interest rates and the abolition of programmes of directed credit. Here the effect of financial sector reform on rural banking and rural credit transactions in India is examined, with particular reference to landless labour households. First, the trends in selected indicators of rural banking at the national level over the last 30 years are reviewed. Secondly, longitudinal data for a village in Tamil Nadu are used to examine changes in patterns of indebtedness and credit transactions among landless labour households. It is argued that the exploitation of landless labour households in the credit market has intensified with the introduction of financial reforms. Lastly, the policy envisaged as an alternative to the formal credit sector in the countryside – the establishment of micro–credit projects – is examined critically.     

国外农产品批发市场发展特点及对我国的启示

通过实地考察,本文对国外农产品批发市场的特点进行了初步的概括和总结,并与国内同类市场的实际情况和行业现状进行对比分析,以期从中得到一些启示。     

Threshold Effects and Asymmetric Price Adjustments in U.S. Dairy Markets

Recent volatility in food prices and the growing disparity between prices at various stages of the marketing channel has generated much interest among agricultural producers, consumers, and policy makers. This study examines the effect of nonlinear threshold dynamics on asymmetric price transmission for three U.S. dairy products (butter, cheese, and fluid milk) using threshold error correction models. The empirical result suggests that price transmission of changes between producer and retail stages of the marketing chain is asymmetric for butter and fluid milk, but not for cheese prices. Also, this paper's findings indicate that conclusions about price asymmetries depend on the model specification assumptions made about symmetry and threshold effects. Thus, previous studies that assumed symmetric behavior and ignored threshold effects may be misleading. La récente volatilité des prix des produits alimentaires et la disparité croissante entre les prix observés aux divers échelons du réseau de distribution ont suscité l'attention des producteurs agricoles, des consommateurs et des décideurs. La présente étude examine l'effet d'une dynamique non linéaire avec seuil sur la transmission asymétrique des prix dans le cas de trois produits laitiers aux États‐Unis (le beurre, le fromage et le lait de consommation), à l'aide de modèles à correction d'erreur avec seuil. Les résultats empiriques montrent que la transmission des variations de prix entre les producteurs agricoles et les détaillants est asymétrique dans le cas du beurre et du lait de consommation, mais ne l'est pas dans le cas du fromage. D'après les résultats de la présente étude, les conclusions concernant l'asymétrie des prix dépendent des hypothèses posées sur la symétrie et les effets de seuil. Par conséquent, les études antérieures dans lesquelles on a supposé un comportement symétrique et ignoré les effets de seuil pourraient induire en erreur.     

Food Insecurity,Soil Degradation and Agricultural Markets in West Africa: Why Current Policy Approaches Fail

The agricultural sector in West Africa is not at present capable of meeting the growing demand for food for its population and of reversing unfavourable trends in soil degradation. We argue that integrated soil management is an essential condition for sustainable agricultural development in the many regions in West Africa where population pressure forces an intensification of land use. Such an approach combines improved soil-moisture storage measures, and the use of organic and inorganic fertilizers and soil amendments. The synergetic effects which could result from this combination are indispensable for achieving the productivity increases needed to cope with the pressure of population. Current (neo-liberal and ecological-participationist) policy approaches are unable to realize the transition towards integrated soil management technologies. The time lags involved in learning to use new technologies, in the adaptation of technologies to local circumstances, and in reaping the benefits of soil fertility investments call for (at least temporary) support of agricultural incomes.     

The Canadian Beef and Pork Sectors: New Found Relevance of Live Market Information

The structure of price transmission both vertically (between links in the market channel) and horizontally (between market areas) for beef and pork in Canada is examined. The analysis of vertical price transmission indicates that farmgate prices lead retail prices. The hypothesized relationship between retail and farmgate prices is that the farmgate demand curve is shifted by wholesaler anticipation of the retail price changes. Such a situation would place greater importance on the live markets since prices determined in these markets would eventually be reflected in the retail market. The results have further implications for the determination of price margins and related policy issues.     

State Trading Enterprises in a Differentiated Product Environment: The Case of Global Malting Barley Markets

This study tested if the exclusive procuring and pricing policies of two state trading enterprises (STEs) in international malting barley markets could be used in a strategic trade context. The research provided four key findings. First, the global malting barley market operated in a quantity-setting oligopolistic structure during the study years. Second, both STEs and other exporting countries were in Cournot competition and thus made available strategic trade possibilities. Third, initial commodity payments were too high to generate a rent-shifting outcome. Fourth, product differentiation was confirmed, which may have dampened the desire/ability of STEs to pursue a rent-shifting objective.     

Buyer Collusion and Efficiency of Government Intervention in Wheat Markets in Northern India: An Asymmetric Structural Auctions Analysis

This article uses auction theory to analyze wholesale markets for wheat in Northern India. This approach enables us to characterize the market in terms of buyer asymmetries, to detect the existence of collusion, and to quantify its impact on market prices. We show that buyer asymmetries exacerbate the downward impact of collusion on prices. The article also considers whether the government paid too much for the wheat it procured at the minimum support price, and shows that for our sample it did not. The article is based on a primary survey of two wholesale markets in North India.     

Consumer Response to Information about a Functional Food Product: Apples Enriched with Antioxidants

Interest in functional foods has been growing as consumers become increasingly concerned with diet and nutrition. This article measures consumers' responses to apples enriched with an antioxidant coating. Antioxidant‐enriched apples are believed to provide additional health benefits reducing the risk of cancer and heart diseases. We discuss the consumer's benefit‐risk trade‐offs. Although functional food products provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition, some consumers may reject them because they utilize new technology. Face‐to‐face consumer surveys with contingent valuation questions were conducted in Seattle and Spokane, Washington in 2006. Consumers who choose where to shop based on organic availability are less likely to pay a premium for apples enriched with antioxidants. Also, there is evidence that consumers in Spokane are more likely to pay a premium for the product than consumers in supermarkets in Seattle. Information regarding the potential health benefits of antioxidants has a positive significant effect on consumers' willingness to pay (WTP). The estimated mean WTP suggests that there is a small premium associated with this product in the mind of an average consumer. L'intérêt pour les aliments fonctionnels ne cesse de croître étant donné que les consommateurs s'intéressent de plus en plus au régime alimentaire et à la nutrition. Le présent article évalue la réaction des consommateurs à la vente de pommes enrobées d'antioxydants. On croit que les pommes enrichies d'antioxydants procureraient des bienfaits supplémentaires pour la santé en diminuant le risque de cancer et de cardiopathies. Nous avons examiné les avantages et les risques pour le consommateur. Bien que les aliments fonctionnels apportent des bienfaits pour la santé en plus d'une nutrition de base, certains consommateurs peuvent les refuser parce qu'ils ont nécessité l'utilisation de nouvelles technologies. En 2006, nous avons effectué, à Seattle et à Spokane dans l'État de Washington, des sondages en personne à l'aide de l'approche des préférences exprimées. Les consommateurs qui choisissaient un magasin d'alimentation en fonction de la disponibilité de produits biologiques étaient moins enclins à payer une prime pour obtenir des pommes enrichies d'antioxydants. Les consommateurs de Spokane ont semblé plus enclins à payer une prime pour ce produit que les consommateurs qui fréquentaient les supermarchés de Seattle. L'information sur les bienfaits potentiels des antioxydants sur la santé a des répercussions positives considérables sur la volonté de payer des consommateurs. La volonté de payer moyenne estimative laisse supposer que, dans l'esprit du consommateur moyen, ce produit procure un certain avantage.     

Information Sharing and Oligopoly in Agricultural Markets: The Role of the Cooperative Bargaining Association

We study incentives for information sharing among agricultural intermediaries in imperfectly competitive markets for farm output. Information sharing always increases expected grower and total surplus, but may reduce expected intermediary profits. Even when expected profits increase with information sharing, intermediary firms face a prisoner's dilemma where it is privately rational to withhold information, given that other firms report truthfully. This equilibrium can be avoided if firms' information reports are verifiable, and if firms commit to an ex ante contract that enforces participation in information sharing. We show how agricultural bargaining legislation can implement such a contract with the bargained farm price representing a sufficient statistic of all information held by intermediary firms.     

Genetic Information in Agricultural Productivity and Product Development

Two prominent features of recent changes in agriculture have been the advent of precision breeding techniques and an increase in the level of information netputs in production. This article identifies ways in which these features may complement in expanding the variety of processed products, level of productivity, and rate of change in productivity. Using a martingale concept of information, we identify conditions under which information increases the incentives to invest and engage in product differentiation activities. A theory on how genetic uniformity can enhance the rate of learning through process experimentation, and so the rate of technical change, is developed.     

Managed Trade in Non-traditional Products: Emerging Issues for Canada's Specialised Livestock Sectors

The specialised livestock industry is poised for excellent growth and development in both Saskatchewan and Canada. … Specialised livestock have the potential to meet market demands in other parts of the world as well as local opportunities for healthy and exotic foods. (Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food, 2000).
… there are now 4000 deer farms in New Zealand. They are running 1.8 million animals, in a country somewhat smaller than Saskatchewan! (Haigh 2000).
There are domestic and export markets for venison and export offers the best returns. Over 80% of Australian-produced venison is now exported … They are large markets with limited Australian market penetration because of the current small size of our industry and our inability to provide the volume required (Mackay 2000).
…the behaviour of new enterprises follow a very predictable pattern. Unfortunately, despite the highly predictable nature of these issues and problems, the same mistakes are made over and over (McKinna 1999).