THE STRUCTURE OF NON-INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS

O rganization structure is determined by the interaction of several variables. Woodward's work suggested that technology is one of the most important and this study attempts to extend her findings from the industrial to the non-manufacturing sphere. The results show that structure does relate to task within the non-manufacturing group — but that taken as a whole the structures of the non-manufacturing group differ from all those Woodward found in manufacture. Some of these differences are seen to derive from the relative simplicity of the non-manufacturing technology. Others can be traced to the operation of intervening variables.     

KNOWLEDGE AND THE THEORY OF ORGANIZATIONS: ORGANIZATIONS AS ACTIVITY SYSTEMS AND THE REFRAMING OF MANAGEMENT*

Recent developments in the theory of knowing and doing contrast with conventional rational-cognitive assumptions about management and organization. This, and the emphasis that is currently being placed on the importance of esoteric knowledge for business success, suggests that a review of the relationship between knowledge, organization and management is timely. Activity theory offers a way of synthesizing and developing relevant notions. the approach has its origins in Russian psychology which endeavoured to avoid the dichotomies between thought and action and between individuals and society which have characterized Western theory. Activity theory examines the nature of practical activities, their social origins, and the nature of the ‘activity systems’ within which people collaborate. Modifications to Engestrom's contemporary presentation of the approach are suggested, and a theory of organizations as activity systems is offered. the theory reframes management by modelling the recurrent and embedded nature of human activities, by revealing the tentative nature of knowledge and its action orientation, and by highlighting the opportunities for individual and collective development that engagement and dilemma can provide. the article concludes by reviewing implications for the management of knowledge work, organizational capabilities and organizational learning.     

THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPONENT OF ORGANIZATIONS AND THE RATCHET EFFECT: A CRITIQUE OF CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES

When growth and decline are examined with regard to the administrative component of organizations, an apparent dichotomy exists between crosssectional designs and within organization longitudinal studies. The results of longitudinal studes indicate the existence of a ratcheting effect of the administtrative component which cannot be explanined by the size construct alone. Therefore, an analysis of the ratchet effect is presented and a conceptual model of factors influencing the growth and decline of the administrative component is propsed.     

A CULTURAL THEORY OF INFORMATION BIAS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Organizations show an essential cultural pluralism. Taking this into account, we aim at developing a cultural theory of organizations. A central role in this theory is played by information rejection, which can follow any of four different styles: risk absorption, networking, paradigm protection, or expulsion. These can be related to different types of organizational cultures, in particular to markets, hierarchies, and sects. Different kinds of information bias institutionalize different kinds of leadership.     

THE USE OF GROUNDED THEORY FOR THE QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Qualitative social research generates large amounts of non-standard data which make analysis problematic. This discussion advocates the use of grounded theory as a way of handling these problems. The approach is illustrated, in the context of organizational research, by three cases of grounded theoretical analyses: (a) a study of face-to-face interaction in a hospital between nurses and patients’ relatives; (b) a field-study based on the complex organizational interrelationships associated with small batch production manufacturing; and (c) a documentary-based analysis of the organizational pre-conditions of large-scale accidents. The discussion of the cases stresses the manner in which the qualitative data collected were manipulated in order to give them theoretical shape.     

THE ADOPTION OF THE MULTIDIVISIONAL FORM OF ORGANIZATION: A CONTINGENCY MODEL*

This article examines the proposition that the multidivisional structure is determined by both power and efficiency imperatives. It is theorized that combining the coalitional power and information-processing perspectives of organizational choice enables us to explain and predict organizational form. The theory is tested on 291 Fortune 500 firms. The results largely confirm theoretical expectations. It is submitted that the multidivisional paradigm illustrates the central premises of the article: (1) a synthesis of efficiency and power perspectives is a viable research programme; and (2) theoretical pluralism increases empirical content and should be valued by those concerned with progress in the emerging field of strategic management.     

SOME FACETS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONSULTANTS AND CLIENTS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Although frequently represented as a critical aspect of consultancy, the relationship between consultants and their clients and its relevance to the achievement of successful outcomes are subjects to which few writers have devoted serious attention. In an earlier piece of research, the author concluded that an ‘interdependent’ relationship was likely to be an important factor in successful consulting assignments. He identified eight facets of this type of relationship. This paper describes how that theory was tested when three consultants, together with a number of their clients, explained why they thought their work together had been successful. The cases illustrate both the ways in which the relationships were built and the extent to which they were perceived as having been important ingredients in the outcomes achieved. The relationships described were characterized by high levels of mutual trust and interaction as well as contingency on the part of the consultants. In several respects the relationships were seen as interdependent. A feature of this study was that the extent to which the consultants found the research useful in a personal sense seemed to depend on the quality of the relationship between the author and the consultants. In the cases described the exercise seems to have been mutually beneficial. In another example this seems not to have been the case and the explanation seems to lie at least partly in a lack of interdependence.     

THE BROKEN WHEEL: THE INSEPARABILITY OF AUTONOMY AND CONTROL IN INNOVATION WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS

There is an ambiguity at the centre of our understanding of innovation in large, specialized organizations. The literature is split as to whether individual autonomy or hierarchical control leads to an increase in innovative activity. In this article, I argue that this uncertainty is the result of an inappropriate conceptualization. In my view, autonomy and control are inseparable aspects of managerial action, not independent empirical phenomena. Innovation in an organization requires the simultaneous regulation of autonomy and control in order to promote creativity and experimentation but still produce results that can be manufactured and marketed or institutionalized. I develop an interpretive concept of culture to analyse the relationship between autonomy and control, and I apply this conceptual framework to managers and engineers in an electronics company as they attempt to innovate. Four general conclusions emerge. First, autonomy and innovation can never be ends in themselves but always depend on a context of control for their relevance to the organization. Second, under conditions in which innovation is required and autonomous behaviour is important, general management control is needed as a sort of switching station to regulate interaction and set and enforce priorities. Third, when control and autonomy are not in balance a vicious circle can develop which undermines commitment to an organization's goals. Fourth, innovation in organizations requires participants to have a highly developed sense of the legitimate possibilities of autonomy in organization.     

VARIATIONS ON THE THEME OF CONNINGa IN MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS

Abstract The mathematization of economics is almost exclusively in terms of the mathematics of real analysis which, in turn, is founded on set theory (and the axiom of choice) and orthodox mathematical logic. In this paper I try to point out that this kind of mathematization is replete with economic infelicities. The attempt to extract these infelicities is in terms of three main examples and one general discussion: dynamics, policy and rational expectations and learning are the examples; a game theory without ‘subjectivism’, based on the axiom of determinateness, is discussed in general terms. The focus is on the role and reliance of standard fixed‐point theorems in orthodox mathematical economics.     

MODEL REFERENCE ADAPTIVE SYSTEM ESTIMATES FOR COUNTING PROCESSES

The adaptive estimation procedure of the model reference adaptive system is modified and applied to counting process models. Maximum likelihood estimates constitute a subclass of the adaptive estimators considered. The adaptive estimator is shown to be strongly consistent and to converge in law to a normal variate. Applications are considered; for example properties of the adaptive estimate are obtained for a periodic intensity model.