The role of competence level in the self‐efficacy–skills relationship: an empirical examination of the skill acquisition process and its implications for information technology training

The role of computer training has long been critical in organizations as reliance on technology for strategic advantage increases in importance. How to most effectively conduct such training has clear implications for organizations. This study examines one area of training which is not well understood: the role that competence level plays in the self‐efficacy–competence relationship (if indeed it plays a role at all) during skill acquisition. Two opposing conceptual positions are presented from the literature, one that suggests the relationship between self‐efficacy and competence will be stronger early in the skill acquisition process (when competence is minimal), the other suggesting the strength of the relationship will be stronger at mastery. Using a sample of over 600 and structural equation modeling, the relationship between self‐efficacy and competence for six different computing application domains is tested by dividing respondents in each domain in half, according to competence level. Results empirically demonstrate that level of competence makes a significant difference in the domains, that those higher in ability typically have a stronger relationship with self‐efficacy. Results also show that the relationship is weaker for those new to the application and those who have mastered the application. The important implications for training are discussed.     

How gender influences the effect of age on self‐efficacy and training success

Previous research has shown age and gender differences in training, but the results have been mixed and their combined influence is only rarely examined. We fill those gaps by analysing age and gender effects on self‐efficacy and training success. Study participants were trainees in an e‐learning time‐ and self‐management behaviour modelling training programme. We measured self‐efficacy before and after training and time‐ and self‐management behaviour before and 6 weeks after training. We expected the differences between pre‐ and post‐test results to indicate self‐efficacy development and we expected differences between pre‐ and follow‐up tests to indicate training success. A hierarchical regression analysis showed that age and gender interacted in both self‐efficacy development and training success. A structural equation model confirmed that men and women showed different relationships among age, self‐efficacy and training success. Older women showed more positive development compared with older men. We conclude that age and gender should both be considered in future design and training evaluations.     

Why do firms train? Empirical evidence on the relationship between training and technological and organizational change

We explore the relationship between training and innovation using key insights from the resource‐based approach, organizational learning and labour studies. By using data from 304 large enterprises in Italy, the study highlights a twofold role of training in favouring technological and organizational changes. First, training plays a role in allowing the acquisition and the assimilation of new knowledge. Consequently, firms in which the provision of training is part of a bundle of high‐performance management practices are more likely to undertake technological and organizational changes and to develop new competencies internally. Second, training supports firms in the assimilation of technological and organizational changes. Consequently, firms that undertake these changes exhibit a superior participation rate for employees and greater time intensity of their training programmes. Firms' inclination to develop new competencies internally does not affect, however, the intensity of training, thereby suggesting that organizational learning processes do not start by a broad involvement of employees in formalized training programmes.     

Predicting autonomous and controlled motivation to transfer training

In spite of a broad consensus on the importance of motivation for the transfer of learning from training to the job in work organizations, studies investigating motivation to transfer are limited. This study combines the self‐determination theory, the expectancy theory and the theory of planned behaviour to provide a theoretical framework for investigating attitudes towards training content, relatedness and instructional satisfaction as predictors of two dimensions of transfer motivation: autonomous motivation to transfer and controlled motivation to transfer. A total of 444 subjects, trained in 23 occupational health and safety training courses, completed multi‐item questionnaires immediately following training. Structural equation modelling procedures indicate that controlled motivation to transfer was affected by attitudes towards training content and that autonomous motivation to transfer was affected by attitudes, relatedness and instructional satisfaction. The results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications for training effectiveness associated with the interplay of motivation and transfer in professional training.     

Desire to be ethical or ability to self‐control: Which is more crucial for ethical behavior?

Promoting ethical decisions and behaviors is challenging for any organization. Yet managers are still required to make ethical decisions under conditions which deplete their self‐control resources, such as high stress and long hours. This study examines the relationships among symbolic and internal moral identity, self‐control, and ethical behavior, and investigates whether self‐control acts as the mechanism through which moral identity leads to ethical behavior. Findings indicate that internal moral identity overrides symbolic moral identity in the relationship with self‐control and that self‐control fully mediates the relationship between internal moral identity and ethical behavior. The implications for organizations is that while rules, procedures, and ethics training are useful, managers with a strong moral compass will be more likely to practice self‐control leading to more ethical behaviors.     

Measuring self‐regulated learning in the workplace

In knowledge‐intensive industries, the workplace has become a key locus of learning. To perform effectively, knowledge workers must be able to take responsibility for their own developmental needs, and in particular, to regulate their own learning. This paper describes the construction and validation of an instrument (the Self‐Regulated Learning at Work Questionnaire) designed to provide a measure of self‐regulated learning (SRL) behaviour in the workplace. The instrument has been validated through a pilot study with a cohort of 170 knowledge workers from the finance industry. Results indicate that the five scales of the instrument are reliable and valid, testing a broad range of sub‐processes of SRL. The instrument can be used to identify knowledge workers who demonstrate different levels of SRL in workplace contexts for further exploration through qualitative studies and could also provide the basis of professional development tools designed to explore opportunities for self‐regulation of learning in the workplace.     

Employee post‐training behaviour and performance: evaluating the results of the training process

Despite the fact that firms invest in training, there is considerable evidence to show that training programmes often fail to achieve the intended result of improving worker and organization performance. The purpose of this paper is to examine the medium‐ to long‐term effects of training programmes on firms by means of an integrated research model combining the principal factors that the existing literature has shown to be related to training transfer and also by examining the relationship between training transfer and operational performance. The transfer factors chosen are training design, trainee self‐efficacy and work environment. The validity of this model is tested by applying the structural equation modelling approach to data from 126 employees who have participated in various training programmes in a number of Greek organizations. The results indicate that the design of a training programme has the strongest impact on post‐training job performance, along with trainees' self‐efficacy and post‐training behaviour.     

Exploring the role of goal theory in understanding training motivation

A model to test conceptions from goal theory within an existing framework of training motivation was developed and tested with employees participating in training in a non‐profit organization. It was hypothesized that goal orientation ('distal factors’) along with self‐efficacy, expectancy and valence (‘proximal factors’) would predict goal intentions as well as training outcomes such as affective responses to training, perceptions of training utility and intention to transfer or use the training provided. Results revealed that goal orientation predicted a significant proportion of variance in the proximal antecedents (valence (33 per cent), expectancy (39 per cent) and self‐efficacy (31 per cent)) whereas the proximal antecedents explained 43 per cent of the variance in goal intentions. In turn, goal intentions were related to training outcomes (affect (b = 0.7), utility (b = 0.6) and transfer intention (b = 0.5)). Goal intentions mediated the relationship between proximal antecedents and training outcomes, providing evidence that goal intentions play a pivotal role in the causal path from proximal factors to training outcomes. Valence alone was found to be a significant mediator of the relationship between goal orientation and goal intentions.     

The moderating role of self‐efficacy in the organizational culture–training transfer relationship

This paper aims to examine the combined effects of self‐efficacy and organizational culture on employees' transfer of knowledge/skills acquired through training. The questionnaires were distributed to 252 newly hired employees working in a service organization in Greece. Each of the independent variables examined added incrementally to the prediction of training transfer. Moreover, self‐efficacy was found to act as a moderator in the organizational culture–training transfer relationship. High self‐efficacy was found to strengthen both achievement culture–training transfer as well as humanistic culture‐training transfer relationships, whereas low self‐efficacy weakened these relationships. The study has practical implications by providing insights into ways of engaging employees in transferring the skills acquired during training. This investigation extends previous research by demonstrating that self‐efficacy acts as an accentuating factor in the relationship between organizational culture orientations and new hires' transfer of training.     

Changing a Culture: Evaluation of a Leadership Development Program at Mellon Financial Services

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an internally developed and delivered Leadership Development program conducted at Mellon Financial Services. The 9‐month program integrated action learning/action science strategies into 13 modules. Program effectiveness was measured using instruments and statistics that already existed in the organisation—employee satisfaction surveys, annual employee turnover statistics, and regional scorecard results. In addition, the training participants completed midpoint and end‐of‐training feedback forms. Results of the evaluation showed that the impact of the training transferred to the participants’ job performance through increased job satisfaction, decreased turnover, and improved scorecard statistics.     

The impact of values‐job fit and age on work‐related learning

Research shows that both individual and job‐related factors influence a worker's work‐related learning. This study combines these factors, examining the impact of fit between one's work values and job characteristics on learning. Although research indicates that fit benefits multiple work‐related outcomes, little is known about the impact of fit on learning. Moreover, life span theories indicate that values evolve throughout the lifespan. Therefore, we examined how age influences work values and thereby work‐related learning. Our self‐report questionnaire was completed by 221 workers of various ages and occupations. Our findings indicate that work values, job characteristics and their fit influence the quantity and quality of work‐related learning. Generally, a higher fit benefits learning, but misfit can also stimulate learning. Workers of different ages report an equal amount of learning, but perform different learning activities. However, this relationship is unrelated to work values. Recommendations for research and practice are discussed.     

An investigation into the relationship between training evaluation and the transfer of training

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between training evaluation and the transfer of training in organizations. We hypothesized that training evaluation frequency will be related to higher rates of transfer because evaluation information can identify weaknesses that lead to improvements in training programs and create greater accountability among stakeholders for training outcomes. The data were obtained from 150 training professionals who were members of a training and development association in Canada. The results indicated that training evaluation frequency is positively related to training transfer. However, among Kirkpatrick's four levels of evaluation criteria, only behavior and results criteria were related to higher rates of transfer of training, indicating that the level of evaluation criteria is important for training transfer. These results indicate the importance of organizational‐level initiatives such as training evaluation in addition to individual‐level practices for facilitating the transfer of training.     

Entrepreneurship Education in a Poverty Context: An Empowerment Perspective

Empowerment is an important but understudied phenomenonExperiential Learning in entrepreneurship education. We integrate literatures on empowerment theory and experiential learning to propose a conceptual model of empowerment‐based entrepreneurship education. The concept of entrepreneurial empowerment is introduced as a cognitive state characterized by meaning, competence, self‐determination, and impact toward entrepreneurial activities. The model proposes that empowerment has a mediating role in the relationship between experiential learning approaches in a poverty context and the acquisition of learning outcomes. The model is illustrated using an entrepreneurship and adversity program that supports local low‐income individuals in starting and growing their ventures.     

Learning to perform? A comparison of learning practices and organizational performance in profit‐ and non‐profit‐making sectors in the UK

To date, much of the research on employee development activities and organizational performance has been conducted in private sector organizations, with the largely untested assumption that the same findings will apply to other sectors. This paper addresses the deficit by describing a study comparing differences in the use of employee learning practices between profit‐making and non‐profit‐making organizations, and examining the relationship between these learning practices and multiple dimensions of organizational performance. The study data was gathered through conducting structured telephone interviews with senior training and development managers in 368 UK organizations from a range of sectors. It was found that non‐profit‐making organizations had greater engagement in individual employee learning practices than profit‐making organizations, but no differences were found in terms of team learning practices or engagement in strategic needs analysis and evaluation activities. The analyses also indicated that individual learning practices showed a stronger relationship with performance in the non‐profit‐making organizations, whereas team learning practices were more significant for the profit‐making companies. The learning practices collectively accounted for greater variance in organizational performance in the non‐profit‐making organizations. The study implies that the functional aims of organizations need to be taken into account when examining the learning practice–organizational performance relationship.     

Cognitive Style and Learning Strategies: Some Implications for Training Design

In designing learning materials there is often the assumption that all trainees will learn in a similar manner. This approach ignorees the important issue of individual differences in cognitive style. Cognitive style may be defined as an individual’s consistent approach to organising and processing information during thinking. Style does not appear to be related to intelligence and reflects qualitative rather than quantitative differences between individuals in their thinking processes. Here the authors argue that conventional training design methodologies (whilst acknowledging learning style) appear to lack the theoretical and empirical bases to acknowledge the important role played by cognitive style in determining learning performance. The aim of the article is to consider the relationship between learning performance, learning strategies and cognitive style and to suggest ways in which human resource development practitioners may accommodate individual differences in style in order that the effectiveness of training and development interventions may be improved.     

Human resource development to facilitate experiential learning: the case of Yahoo Japan

Although work experiences are recognized as important mechanisms for developing leaders in organizations, existing research has focused primarily on work assignments rather than on human resource development (HRD) systems that promote experiential learning of managers. The primary goal of this study was to develop an HRD model for facilitating experiential learning by examining the case of Yahoo Japan, which has transformed its HRD system based on experiential learning theory. The results indicate that Yahoo Japan has promoted experiential learning at the individual level by introducing new HRD systems consisting of four elements: reflection support (one‐on‐one meeting and coaching training), assignment support (HRD meeting and job rotation), assessment support (360‐degree appraisal and one‐on‐one meeting assessment) and visionary support (a vision and values). Although these elements are closely associated with each other, reflection support plays a key role in the HRD system. The proposed model is discussed from theoretical and practical viewpoints.     

Implementing on‐the‐job training: critical success factors

Post Offices Inc. in The Netherlands has developed and implemented a new instruction model for the training of desk employees. The quality of the new instruction model was assessed by means of the evaluation model of Jacobs and Jones for on‐the‐job training. It is concluded that the implementation of the training model has not been completely successful. Critical success factors, such as the performance of the mentors as well as the quality of the self‐study material, have to be improved. Mentors are expected to serve as a behavioural model, to provide feedback, arrange an adequate environment for self‐study, motivate trainees for self‐study and evaluate trainees’ progress on a regular basis. This study shows that mentors must be fully convinced of the benefit of a new instructional model, if not, the implementation will not be successful. Besides, the study shows that the quality of the self‐study material depends very much on the similarity between the knowledge needed in work and the knowledge presented in the self‐study material.     

The effects of training design,individual characteristics and work environment on transfer of training

This study aims to gain insight into some of the factors that determine the transfer of training to the work context. The present research examined the relationship between three types of predictors on transfer of training, including training design, individual characteristics and work environment. Data was collected at two points in time from 182 employees in a large grocery organization. The results indicated that transfer design, performance self‐efficacy, training retention and performance feedback were significantly related to transfer of training. Contrary to expectation, supervisory support was not significantly related to transfer of training. These results suggest that in order to enhance transfer of training, organizations should design training that gives trainees the ability to transfer learning, reinforces the trainee's beliefs in their ability to transfer, ensures the training content is retained over time and provides appropriate feedback regarding employee job performance following training activities.     

Using animated agents in learner‐controlled training: the effects of design control

Animated agents have the potential to increase engagement and learning during online training by acting as personalized tutors. However, little is known about the conditions that make these agents most effective. In this study, 183 e‐learners completed a Microsoft Excel training course. Approximately half were assigned an agent with predetermined features. The others were allowed to choose their agent's appearance, personality, feedback style or all of the above features. Offering multiple choices increased learning. Unexpectedly, choice of feedback style alone decreased self‐efficacy. Choosing the agent's appearance increased self‐efficacy and the number of training modules completed. Overall, this study expands the learner control literature, identifying a new form of learner control that has some beneficial effects on knowledge acquisition.     

The conditions for successful knowledge transfer in development‐aid training programs

The shortage of qualified human capital is a major impediment to development. In the field of international development cooperation, training programs (TPs) have been widely employed to enhance the capacity of workforces in developing countries. This paper investigates the conditions in which these programs can contribute not only to individual human resource development but also to organization‐level reform and innovation in developing countries. The methods were regression analyses of training monitoring records as well as follow‐up e‐mail interviews with former participants of information and communication technology TPs sponsored by the Japanese International Cooperation Agency. The research reveals that bilateral communication between training participants and the home organizations during the training plays a key role in increasing the probability of successful organization‐level transfer of individual‐level learning, irrespective of the original level of organization's absorptive capacity. The researchers examine the differences in transfer factors between the development aid context in their research and the paradigm case of the business organization found in much of the transfer literature.