An investigation into apprenticeship completion and retention in Northern Ireland: a social exchange perspective

This paper investigates effective strategies for enhancing completion rates of apprentices and their retention after completing their training. The study was cross sectional and qualitative, involving semi‐structured interviews with managers and four focus groups involving current and completed apprentices from within the engineering sector. The findings revealed that the factors that can enhance intentions of completing an apprenticeship were perceived organisation support (POS) factors such as apprentice pay, recognition and employer support. Leader Member Exchange (LMX) factors such as support from trainers and supervisors, would increase their intentions to complete an apprenticeship and stay on with an organisation after training. The key Percieved Organisational Support factors that would enhance intentions to stay with the organisation after completion were post apprenticeship pay, career progression and challenging and interesting work. Participants with high Perceived Organisational Support and Leader‐Member Exchange, had higher intentions of completing an apprenticeship and staying with the employer after completion and vice versa. This research added to the literature on apprenticeships as it analysed the factors influencing current and completed apprentices’ intentions to discontinue or complete an apprenticeship and stay with or leave their employer after completion through the lens of social exchange theory (SET) (Blau, 1964). This is unlike previous studies that emphasised motivation theory. Social Exchange Theory was supported as both employers and apprentices weighed the costs and benefits of their relationship which impacted on their completion and retention choices. The implication of this study is that employers should develop effective strategies for enhancing completion and retention rates to reap the full benefits from apprenticeships.     

Testing the human capital development model: the case of apprenticeships in Turkey

Human capital theory was developed to study how individual agents make rational choices or how they invest in human capital to maximize their welfare. One of the leading founders of this perspective, Becker, argues that schooling, on‐the‐job training, medical care, migration and searching for information about prices and incomes are different types of human capital as all these investments improve skills, knowledge or health, thereby increasing individual welfare. He states that education and training are the most important investments in human capital. Apprenticeship training is, thus, identified and treated as a type of investment in human capital. At first glance, it seems that apprentices who are being trained are acquiring skills in a specific vocation. One would suppose that the trainees are getting knowledge and skills and that they would become masters in their profession after a long training process. However, further enquiry is needed to see if this is the case in reality. The present small‐scale, exploratory study, based on 20 interviews – 10 with apprentices and 10 with their employers – aims to investigate the apprenticeship training system in Turkey. In doing so, it seeks to test the basic tenets of human capital theory against the facts discovered. The findings, if they could be generalized, suggest that the Turkish apprenticeship system is a form of child labour rather than a training process. Contrary to apprentice training being a human capital investment, the study finds that trainees do not rationally decide to enter an apprenticeship nor are they selected by a meritocratic system. All of them come from poor peasant families or low‐wage working families where the most pressing need is for the child to earn money.     

Apprenticeships: The problem of attractiveness and the hindrance of heterogeneity

This paper examines a question posed in 2019 in the International Journal on Training and Development: ‘How do we solve a problem like apprenticeship?’ Data sources covering a substantial number of countries are used to present findings on, and analyse, initiatives that have been implemented or that have been considered, and then to develop some analytical constructs to help address the question. Fundamental issues such as the status of vocational education and training and the status of apprenticed occupations are important, but the nature of the apprenticeship arrangements, within countries and within industries are also major factors affecting perceived attractiveness. The paper therefore argues that the heterogeneity of apprenticeship systems and arrangements is a major barrier to solving the attractiveness problem. Moreover, the heterogeneity of potential apprenticeship applicants means that marketing campaigns or other efforts to attract more, and higher quality, apprentices need to be cognisant of individuals’ backgrounds, characteristics, and aspirations. Some tentative ways of addressing these matters are presented, but the conclusion is that the topic needs large-scale research.     

The Institutional Requirements Of Apprenticeship: Evidence From Smaller EU Countries

To what extent does the experience of other European econom‐ies in which apprenticeship has proved successful suggest scope for reviving apprenticeship in the UK without requiring institutional regulation along German lines? The institutional attributes of apprenticeship in four smaller European economies (Austria, Denmark, Ireland and the Netherlands) are shown to be closer to Germany’s social partnership than to the UK’s deregulated market, in terms of: statutory governance; formal educational requirements; administration at sec‐toral and local levels through social partnership; and funding based upon a clear separation of responsibilities between government and employers, though not between employers and apprentices. At the same time, the introduction of statu‐tory apprenticeship into Irish industry in recent years, in an institutional environment that has traditionally had much in common with that of the UK, suggests that the scope for institutional development in support of apprenticeship has been obscured by the widespread tendency to limit the choice of international comparisons to the Anglo‐Germanic.     

Employer training in Australia: current practices and concerns

This paper presents and analyses results from a research project on current trends in employer training in Australia. While the formal vocational education and training (VET) system is well‐researched, the everyday training that happens in workplaces is relatively under‐researched in Australia. Using some of the results of an employer survey undertaken in 2015, the paper describes and analyses employer‐based training across a range of industry areas. The survey included groups of questions on a range of matters, including the reasons why employers train, and how these relate to employers’ perceptions of their operating environment, and the structures they have in place to manage and organize training. Detailed data are provided about three specific forms of training: in‐house training and learning; the use that employers make of external providers of training; and employers’ use of nationally recognised training – training from the VET system. Finally the paper reports what managers said about the barriers to providing more training. The paper analyses the findings in relation to the literature and also identified changes over time in training practices in Australian companies. Implications for training policy and practice, as well as for future research, are identified.     

Engaging employers in workplace training – lessons from the English Train to Gain programme

Despite the ambition of an employer‐led vocational education and training system, a lack of employer engagement in workplace training continues to be reported in England. There seems to be a mismatch between national policy level expectations of how employers should be engaging in workplace training and the practicalities of employer engagement at the local level. This paper presents findings from insider research on employer engagement in Train to Gain, the recent UK government flagship workplace training programme. The study draws on interviews with training providers and government contract managers in one local area to examine the impact of programme structures and funding arrangements on employer engagement and to identify lessons to be learnt. In their interview accounts, training providers identified rigidity and instability in government funding and management system structures as having constrained employer engagement in Train to Gain at the local level. The findings have implications for workplace training policy by suggesting that programmes with stable funding and local flexibility enable more effective employer engagement.     

Can apprenticeships contribute to innovation in SMEs? The case of Catalonia

The objective of this study is to analyse the contribution of students of vocational education and training (VET) to the innovation processes of small‐ and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs) during their apprenticeships. Qualitative research was conducted through in‐depth interviews with 97 respondents in Catalonia, including VET teachers and students, SME managers, and social and institutional agents. Our findings reveal that public institutions have a partial view of innovation, mostly influenced by an industrial positioning, which leads to the neglect of other components, such as the social aspects. In addition, regarding public programmes designed to foster innovation through VET, the results show a lack of coordination between VET schools, SMEs and public administrations. Finally, in relation to apprentices, we find a low participation in innovation processes by students during their apprenticeship as a consequence of the bad implementation of innovation public programmes, due to the lack of coordination between VET schools and SMEs.     

Apprenticeships and ‘future work’: are we ready?

The paper evaluates the readiness of apprenticeship systems to cope with five major developments affecting the future of work. The institution of apprenticeship has evolved over time in all countries, gradually adapting to changes in industrial processes, the economy, the labour market and education systems. This paper suggests, however, that recent changes in the economy and the labour market, and their concomitant effects on the likely future of work, have the potential to disrupt apprenticeship systems quite radically worldwide, and/or to make them less relevant in the 21st century. The paper draws on data from recent Australian and international research projects undertaken by the author, as well as the author’s engagement in Australian government exercises to discuss the future of apprenticeships. The research found that adaptations of systems and processes were being undertaken at company level and by stakeholders such as trade union or employer peak bodies. They were less frequently apparent, however, in government policy. The paper analyses the data to produce a framework of readiness for ‘future work’, but also queries whether adaptation of apprenticeship systems is necessarily desirable in all instances. Although the presence of multiple stakeholders in the system has previously been viewed as a strength of the system, it can also make even minor changes difficult to implement. This could prove to be a major impediment to apprenticeship’s future or could be a means of preserving its essential features.     

Vocational education and training and employer engagement: an industry‐led sectoral system in the Netherlands

The overall objective of this paper is to determine, through a qualitative case study of the Dutch sectoral training system, factors associated with successful employer engagement. As well as examining the key features of the Dutch approach to vocational education and training (VET), the article makes a number of specific arguments: (1) employer ‘buy‐in’ is crucial to the success of the sectoral approach to VET; (2) simply establishing a system of sector‐based training bodies (e.g. skills councils) does not guarantee effective employer engagement; and (3) to make sectoral training work, especially in countries where a ‘supply‐led’ system dominates, a fundamental reform is required in areas such as funding, qualification structure, leadership and system support.     

Training‐related dimensions of apprenticeship programmes in crisis‐ridden Greece: an exploratory study

Since the 2008 financial crisis there has been increased interest in apprenticeships in Greece, largely due to the perception that apprenticeships, in comparison to academic studies, may improve the employment prospects of young people. Before this time, there had been little interest in vocational education and training (VET) and consequently few efforts to develop the VET system. This exploratory article focuses on training, a crucial aspect of apprenticeship programmes, and offers a critical overview of key dimensions of the training content of apprenticeships in Greece. The article draws on the findings of a large‐scale, mostly qualitative research project (carried out between December 2015 and March 2017), which aimed at reviewing the Greek apprenticeship system and gathered, inter alia, the views of 150 individuals representing different groups of stakeholders. It is argued that, despite positive features, the training offered in Greek apprenticeships still suffers from severe shortcomings, which highlight the need for urgent reform and restructuring. Without such reform, the potential of the system to be an effective, alternative to the academic pathway or to boost employment will be seriously constrained.     

Informal training and learning in Australian firms: The need for a new perspective

This paper examines the use of informal training for workers, by Australian companies and other organisations. Using survey data, it reports the prevalence of informal training and also the utilisation of different types of informal training. Differences are found by employer size, particularly for the different types. By examining qualitative responses, it is found that employers' perceptions of informal training are often not those reflected in existing literature. The paper therefore argues for a new definition of informal training which is comprehensible to employers and workers alike, so that more, and more reliable, research can be undertaken.     

Drownings in Scotland: the real story

The Scottish Accident Prevention Council is responsible for promoting water safety in Scotland. It has long expressed concern that the number of reported drownings in Scotland underestimates the actual figures. The key aims of this study were to establish a valid database of water-based incidents in Scotland and test the under-reporting proposition. A survey involving interviews and correspondence was undertaken to establish the sources of information on drownings. Once identified, a database was established and data for a 7-year period acquired. The study identified the organizations essential to the establishment of a complete database. It also established protocols for gaining annual information. Data analysis confirmed a significant under-reporting of accident data and signalled a number of areas of concern with regard to those most at risk. The study produced, for the first time, a mechanism for recording complete details of drownings in Scotland.     

Supporting the UN Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011–2020

The Scottish Accident Prevention Council is responsible for promoting water safety in Scotland. It has long expressed concern that the number of reported drownings in Scotland underestimates the actual figures. The key aims of this study were to establish a valid database of water-based incidents in Scotland and test the under-reporting proposition.

A survey involving interviews and correspondence was undertaken to establish the sources of information on drownings. Once identified, a database was established and data for a 7-year period acquired.

The study identified the organizations essential to the establishment of a complete database. It also established protocols for gaining annual information. Data analysis confirmed a significant under-reporting of accident data and signalled a number of areas of concern with regard to those most at risk. The study produced, for the first time, a mechanism for recording complete details of drownings in Scotland.     

An Investigation of the Current Practices of In-House Employee Training and Development within Hotels in Scotland

This article presents the results of an itlvestigation of in-house employee training and development practices within hotels in Scotland having 50 or more bedroonls front an operation/ management perspective. Issites pertaining to employee trainitzg and development practices are identified - reduction in st@ turnover; responsibility for staff traitzing and development, time constraints, variety of training methods and training frequency. III the context of training and development, with particular reference to issues ident, a number of recommendations are postulated.     

Supply Chain Disruption Management: Severe Events,Recovery, and Performance

Given their proclivity to occur despite managers' best efforts, disruptions often result in lost sales, lead to large financial losses, and have a negative impact on shareholder wealth and operating performance. Less attention, however, has been paid to improving the process of managing a disruption from its discovery through to complete recovery. This entire process is not, in fact, fully understood. Clearer insights are needed surrounding the following issues: factors influencing the recovery process, how those factors interact to play a role in managerial decision making, and the company's actual ability to recover. While it is possible to determine basic recovery process factors, a more complete picture of disruption management can be built from analysis of data collected through qualitative in‐depth interviews. This research delivers insights around the interactions and relationships among factors, providing the foundation for a set of propositions useful for further investigation in the following areas: discovery of the disruption event, causes of the event, and recovery performance. One finding indicates that while internal disruptions are faster to recover from, they more likely lead to negative perceptions about the recovery performance outcome.     

The place of debt in establishing identity and self‐worth in transitional life phases: young home leavers and credit

Consumption behaviour has long been linked to identity and notions of the self, with these concepts becoming ever more relevant in a global culture of consumption where materialistic behaviours and attitudes are seen as determinants of self‐image. Against this landscape of consumption, Generation Y is oft criticized as the ‘want it now’ generation, focused on hedonic acquisition of possessions and brands. This group was born into a society that reinforces the self through having and have been encouraged to consume since childhood. Debt is increasing in the youth market, with most teenagers now having access to credit cards and university graduates entering the workplace with high levels of consumer as well as educational debt. This study examines the consumption behaviour of two sets of young adult consumers: recent home leavers and those who have lived away from home for a longer period of time, examining their experience with debt in a framework of self‐identity. Core themes to emerge from this research are centred on the place of debt in establishing identity and self‐worth in transitional life phases.     

Exploring complementarity in on‐ and off‐job training for apprenticeships

The differences between on‐ and off‐job learning environments continue to be the subject of much debate, and the notion of complementarity between them is a perennial issue for most forms of training and development. This paper grapples with this issue in relation to apprentices in the building industry in Australia. It analyses the different perceptions of complementarity held by apprentices, host employers and college teachers. It strives to understand the diverse meanings of complementarity within the context of communities of practice in which apprentices acquire not only vocational knowledge and skills, but also a sense of identity through internalising sometimes complementary but often contradictory messages from their different learning environments. Their development towards the status of ‘competent tradespersons’ heavily depends on their individual abilities to integrate and synthesise these messages.     

Determinants of corporate social responsibility and business ethics education in Spanish universities

The current economic crisis, unsustainable growth, and financial scandals invite reflection on the role of universities in professional training, particularly those who have to manage businesses. This study analyzes the main factors that might determine the extent to which Spanish organizational management educators use corporate social responsibility (CSR) or business ethics stand‐alone subjects to equip students with alternative views on business. A web content analysis and non‐parametric mean comparison statistics of the curricula of undergraduate degrees in all universities in Spain were conducted. The main conclusion of this paper is related to the Bologna effect in Spanish universities. Comparing our results with prior research in this matter, it is demonstrated that the main reason that explains the increase of CSR and ethical education in Spain is the Bologna process and its adaptation to the European Higher Education Area. Also, private universities in Spain are more likely to require an ethics course than public universities. Other factors, such as size, political orientation, or related to CSR chairs are not statistically explanatory of CSR and ethical education.     

Fairness in International Trade and Investment: North American Perspectives

In this article, we examine an important but relatively under-researched form of corporate social responsibility, namely, employer support for employee voluntary activity. Using Canadian data, we examine two questions. First, we analyze the impacts of employer support on the total number of hours volunteered and on the voluntary activities which are undertaken. Second, we examine how employer support is distributed between male and female employees. Our results indicate that employer support is associated with a greater amount of volunteer activity by both men and women employees and in a wide range of voluntary activities. However, we also find that women are less likely to receive employer support than men and are less likely to receive support in the form of flexible work hours and time-off. These results are puzzling given that women typically face more binding time constraints than men. We conclude the paper by discussing how employer policies might be changed to address this finding.