Measuring the convergence of national accounting standards with international financial reporting standards: The application of fuzzy clustering analysis

A single set of accounting standards is considered the path to achieving accounting convergence globally. Given the important role that formal harmonization/convergence plays in the accounting profession and global capital markets, this study focuses on the methods and methodology for the measurement of formal accounting convergence. Based on our review and evaluation of the existing methods for measuring the level of harmonization/convergence between any two sets of accounting standards, we propose using a new method of matching and fuzzy clustering analysis to assess the convergence progress of national accounting standards (NAS) with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) from whole and single standards, respectively. Single standards are clustered according to their convergence level, which may indicate further convergence emphasis. As an illustrative example, the achievements made in China are evaluated using this new method. The results reveal that this new method can measure the convergence level of NAS with IFRS more clearly and informatively.     

Australia's switch to international financial reporting standards: a perspective from account preparers

This study reports the findings of a structured telephone survey on adoption of international financial reporting standards (IFRS) from 60 firms drawn from among Australia's top 200 corporations. Although we find evidence of strong systematic variation in survey responses with factors such as firm size, industry background and expected impacts on financial performance, the general results indicate that many respondents have not been well prepared for the transition and are generally very sceptical about the claimed benefits of IFRS as enunciated in the government's Corporate Law Economic Reform Program. The results have implications to other international reporting jurisdictions, particularly the European Union, where adoption of IFRS is already underway.     

Cultural differences and judgment in financial reporting standards

This instructional resource provides you with the opportunity to explore how cultural differences can impact financial reporting outcomes through the judgments accountants make when interpreting and applying accounting standards. It is intended to draw your attention and awareness to culture’s impact on financial reporting judgments since financial reporting is becoming increasingly international in scope. The instructional resource begins by discussing financial reporting standards and cultural differences and then moves into presenting three accounting scenarios. The three scenarios (lease classification, contingent liability, and revenue recognition) examine how applying accounting standards requires judgment and how cultural differences can influence accountants’ judgments and the resulting financial reporting outcomes. In each scenario, you have the opportunity to identify and consider how different cultural dimensions could impact cross-cultural financial reporting outcomes. The instructional resource content allows you to consider the challenges in using and applying a uniform set of global accounting standards that require judgment across cultures.     

Accounting standards and value relevance of financial statements: An international analysis

Using 17,743 firm-year observations of industrial companies in 21 countries from 1991 to 1997, this paper finds that the use of accrual accounting (versus cash accounting) negatively affects the value relevance of financial statements in countries with weak shareholder protection. This negative effect, however, does not exist in countries with strong shareholder protection. These findings are consistent with the belief that shareholder protection improves the effectiveness of accrual accounting, and suggest the importance of considering shareholder protection when formulating accounting policies related to accruals.     

Financial reporting standards for the public sector: New Zealand's 21st-century experience

New Zealand was seen as world-leading when public sector financial reports were prepared using sector-neutral accounting standards from 1995 onwards. The decision in 2002 to adopt IFRS was disruptive, effecting new understandings of ‘sector-neutral’, and the standard-setter's approach was unsuccessful in meeting public sector users’ needs. The development of a new strategy finalized in 2012 has created a multi-standards framework, including adapted IPSASB standards applicable from 1 July 2014. While neutrality is still prized, it is within a framework of meeting users’ needs. This paper traces the influences expediting these changes.     

Regulatory flexibility and management opportunism in the choice of alternative accounting standards: an illustration based on large French groups

Due to the flexibility of domestic accounting regulations, French groups are entitled to refer to international or American standards for their consolidation. The objective of this research paper is to focus on the choices made by the 100 largest French companies during the last 16 years (1985-2000). In practice, apart from the French rules, three “alternative” sets of standards are used: the International Accounting Standards (IAS), “international principles,” and the U.S. GAAP. The percentage of companies referring to alternative (i.e., non-French) standards rose in the first part of the period, then fell. Additionally, while the number of companies choosing U.S. GAAP increased over the period as a whole, the number preferring IAS or “international principles” has been in sharp decline since 1994-1995. Our results show that in this voluntary move towards international accounting harmonization, the choices made by French companies have clearly varied according to developments in French accounting regulations and the changing power balance between the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) and the SEC-FASB. This indicates a certain degree of opportunism by the management, who clearly keeps one eye constantly on the cost-benefit trade-off.     

Compliance with flexible accounting standards

We examine to what extent firms adhere to the stated intent of noncompulsory accounting standards when reporting for intercorporate investments. The Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) in Norway strongly recommend that a 20-50% intercorporate investment is accounted for by the equity method rather than the cost method, if the investment is long-term, of strategic importance, and involves significant influence. Even so, we find that the actual use of the equity method is independent of the duration of the investment period, the fraction of equity held, its recent growth, and the investor's voting power. This lack of compliance suggests that one cannot use the observed choice between the cost method and the equity method to infer the underlying characteristics of the investment as specified by the accounting standard. Flexible GAAP may therefore not induce firms to disclose the information that the GAAP were designed to produce.     

Financial reporting by charities: a matched case study analysis from four countries

This paper analyses financial reporting requirements applicable to charities in four jurisdictions—Australia; England; Ireland; New Zealand—using case study analysis which compares the actual financial statements of four charities operating in the same field and with similar levels of total income. The authors highlight common issues and implications in terms of the concepts underpinning not-for-profit organization (NPO) financial reporting and argue the case for harmonized international NPO accounting standards.     

Improving earnings quality: The effect of reporting incentives and accounting standards

We investigate the different effects on earnings quality of accounting standards and reporting incentives for Germany over the period 1994 to 2005. To this end, we control for reporting incentives at the firm level, instead of the country level, by using the timing of voluntary IFRS adoption as a proxy for reporting incentives. We then include reporting incentives in an analysis of earnings management and information asymmetry. Contrary to common expectation, we find that IFRS reporting potentially decreases earnings quality on average; but also that reporting incentives appear to have lower effects on earnings quality in IFRS statements than in GGAAP statements. Thus, IFRS may lead to more homogenous earnings quality across firms.     

会计准则变更与资产减值计提行为分析

本文以2007年1月1日开始实施的新会计准则为研究背景,分析资产减值准则对资产减值计提行为的影响。结果发现:减值前亏损的公司会以转回资产减值进行盈余管理来避免亏损,减值前亏损且无法以转回资产减值避免亏损的公司会以计提资产减值从事大洗澡行为,为下一年盈利做准备;新会计准则的实施并不能有效遏制上市公司的扭亏盈余管理行为,但能够遏制上市公司的大洗澡盈余管理行为。     

An investigation of compliance with international accounting standards by listed companies in the Gulf Co-Operation Council member states

This study investigates the extent of compliance with international accounting standards (IASs) by companies in the Gulf Co-Operation Council (GCC) member states (Bahrain, Oman, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates). Based on a sample of 137 companies (436 company-years) we find that compliance increased over time, from 68% in 1996 to 82% in 2002. Despite strong economic and cultural ties between the GCC states, there was significant between-country variation in compliance and among companies based on size, leverage, internationality, and industry. The study provides evidence of de jure but not de facto harmonization in the region. Noncompliance reflected some ineffectiveness in the functions of external auditors and enforcement bodies, which may be of interest to countries that have adopted IASs recently.     

银行监管规则与会计准则协调面临的挑战

强化会计准则与银行监管规则的相互协调不仅有助于提高会计准则的科学性,而且有利于维护全球金融稳定。针对当前两者在协调方面仍然存在的现实困难,该文建议,应继续推进国际会计准则理事会（IASB）的治理结构改革;会计准则制定机构应加快准则趋同步伐,完善准则制定程序;银行监管机构应积极参与概念框架和会计准则的研究制定,并增强与会计准则协调的主动性。     

An analysis of the factors affecting the adoption of international accounting standards by developing countries

The purpose of this study is to identify the factors that could explain the adoption of international accounting standards by developing countries. The following factors have been selected: economic growth, education level, the degree of external economic openness, cultural membership in a group of countries, and the existence of a capital market.Our results indicate that developing countries with the highest literacy rates, that have capital markets, and that have an Anglo-American culture are the most likely to adopt international accounting standards.     

Measuring the impact of international reporting standards on market performance of publicly traded companies

The decision whether to require publicly traded companies to adopt International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) remains in flux. In 2008, the US Securities and Exchange Commission proposed a roadmap leading to complete acceptance of IFRS in the US. With the potential replacement of US GAAP with IFRS in the near future, understanding the impact of IFRS on corporate financial reporting is more important than ever. This study examines two factors which are critical considerations in the decision to accept or not to accept IFRS in the US: How different is financial statement information derived under IFRS from information derived under US generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP); and how much incremental information value, if any, is provided by IFRS over US GAAP? The present study extends prior research by examining concurrently both differences and their impact on market performance. Findings of this study support the view that differences on financial statement results between IFRS and US GAAP are not significant, thus, supporting proponents of adoption of IFRS in the US, after which all US publicly traded companies would use IFRS and not US GAAP.     

Heterogeneous student perceptions of accounting course importance and their implications for SET reporting and use

This research tests for an association between student perceptions of accounting course importance (PCI) and student evaluation of teaching (SET) ratings of satisfaction with instructor performance, course quality, and grading procedures. The study also investigates whether instructor rankings constructed from SET ratings vary across student groupings based on PCI. Using responses from students enrolled in introductory accounting classes at three AACSB-accredited accounting programs we find that SET ratings vary significantly with PCI. We also find that instructor rankings constructed from SET ratings vary with PCI. These findings suggest that, when heterogeneous perceptions are present, satisfying all students enrolled in a course may not be possible and that reliance on aggregated SET data may obscure important differences in student opinion. In this circumstance, disaggregating SET data by PCI and emphasizing the feedback of students holding higher (stronger) perceptions of course importance may enhance SET diagnostic value.     

Regal Hair Salon: Tax and financial reporting of gift cards

Regal Hair Salons Inc., an owner and operator of hair salons across the United States, has enhanced its brand recognition through gift cards and promotions. Using authoritative tax literature, you have to determine the amount and timing of its federal income tax liability for the gift cards of other retailers that Regal has sold, gift cards for its own products and services, and the gift cards that it has issued during a special promotion. You also have an opportunity to determine whether Regal’s financial reporting policies with respect to gift cards are consistent with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAPs), using FASB Accounting Standards Codification. Finally, based on your review of book-tax differences, you are to determine the appropriate current and deferred tax provision. The case provides an opportunity to examine several issues in a real-world setting, strengthen your tax and accounting research capabilities, and develop your critical thinking skills.     

Financial reporting transformation: the experience of Turkey

From the viewpoint of a developing country which is in need of foreign capital and foreign investments to finance its economic growth, the need for high quality financial information has vital importance. The need for IFRS in Turkey was brought up by the same reasons as a developing country and as an emerging market. With the internationalization of capital markets and the increased volume of international investments, companies functioning in Turkey needed to provide high quality financial information to access financial resources. Furthermore, internationally accepted and reliable financial information is also needed for the overseas customers of the domestic companies. Another reason facilitating the need for IFRS is Turkey's candidation for European Union membership.This paper attempts to explain the development process of accounting standards around the world and its practical results in a developing country: Turkey. Within this context, brief information is given about the structure of International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), and adoption process of IFRS in Turkey. During this adoption process, Turkey encounters several complications such as complex structure of the international standards, potential knowledge shortfalls, and difficulties in application and enforcement issues. This paper explores these difficulties and shares the Turkish experience from a viewpoint of a regulator and an academician, and discusses the proper and consistent way implementing a “Principle Based” IFRS in Turkey.     

Examining the differences between United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (U.S. GAAP) and International Accounting Standards (IAS): implications for the harmonization of accounting standards

Current trends indicate continued movement towards the harmonization of accounting standards, but not without difficulty and concern. At times, the political and financial market pressure, push the movement in opposite directions. The paper discusses the conceptual framework used in establishing Global Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) (International Accounting Standards, IAS) and U.S. GAAP. Numerous transactional examples are illustrated under both Global GAAP and U.S. GAAP treatment. Several country specific references are presented demonstrating the difficulty in achieving harmonization. Implications for harmonization of accounting standards include arguments “for” and “against” Global GAAP.     

Financial and external reporting research: the broadening corporate governance challenge

This study provides a critical examination of contemporary financial and external reporting research from a corporate governance perspective. Adopting Hines' social constructionist approach to financial reporting, the study investigates research into accounting publishing patterns, published reviews of major subject areas within financial and external reporting research, and interviews a sample of accounting professors in British universities. The findings reveal a strong North American economics and finance-based positivist influence, a largely uncritical acceptance of accounting's subservience to the demands of the market, a reluctance to engage major policy questions and broader reporting constituencies. These appear to be conditioned to a large degree by internal features and pressures within the academic research community. Evidence is presented for greater attention to major environmental shifts impacting accounting and communities globally, a reinvigoration of researchers' direct engagement with reporting constituents in the field, a revisiting of major accounting, business, social and environmental policy questions, and a preparedness to address today's major corporate governance concerns of communities and governments.     

Reporting accounting changes and fundamental errors: a teaching note

Mastering the requirements for reporting accounting changes and fundamental errors in comparative statements is a challenging topic for many accounting students. Because authoritative literature focuses on identifying events and associating them with reporting methods, many illustrative examples confound the differences between reporting methods with the differences between the factual situations in which the methods apply. This paper presents a single-context teaching aid that focuses on mastering basic reporting methods inherent in the International Accounting Standard governing accounting changes and in the US generally accepted accounting principles. Suggestions are also provided for class discussions of issues surrounding the reporting of accounting changes and fundamental errors.