Validity and reliability of the confirmation of expectations paradigm as a determinant of consumer satisfaction

The Validity of the Confirmation of Expectations paradigm with respect to consumer satisfaction was examined on the basis of the intercorrelations between five variables of the satisfaction process i.e., Expectations, Postpurchase Evaluation, Confirmation of Expectations, Overall Satisfaction, and Repurchase. The results showed that the confirmation of expectations was a confounding variable in the satisfaction process. The major explanation for this variable not fitting into the process was the low reliability of the gain scores or difference scores (i.e., subtraction of prepurchase expectations from post-purchase evaluation) used for the computation of the confirmation of expectations. The major conclusions of this study were as follows: (1) If the purpose of the research is only to predict satisfaction or repurchase then it is best to depend upon direct measures such as postpurchase ratings. (2) If the purpose of research is diagnostic analysis then it is better to apply the confirmation of expectations concept. But for this later application it is important to develop reliable scales to measure the construct of confirmation.     

The role of aesthetic taste in consumer behavior

In light of the increasing interest in hedonic aspects of consumer behavior, it is clear that consumer taste plays a critical role in judgment and decision making, particularly for hedonic products and services. At the present time, however, our understanding of consumer aesthetic taste and its specific role for consumer behavior is limited. In this article, we review the literature from a variety of fields such as sociology, psychology, philosophy, and consumer behavior in order to develop a conceptual definition of consumer aesthetic taste. We then explore various issues related to taste and develop a conceptual framework for the relevance of expertise vs. taste in consumer decision-making. Finally, we present an agenda for future research on this important topic.     

A desires congruency model of consumer satisfaction

The disconfirmation of expectations model has been increasingly criticized in recent years and, as a result, standards other than expectations have been suggested. The present research proposes consumer desires, based on means-end theory, as the comparison standard. Results of an experiment show that the extent to which performance is congruent with desires is a powerful antecedent to satisfaction, while the effect of disconfirmation of expectations is nonsignificant. He received his Ph.D. from Indiana University. His research interests include consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction, service quality, and issues involving consumer knowledge. His work has appeared in the Journal of Consumer Research and the Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior. He received his Ph.D. from Carnegie-Mellon University. His articles have appeared in the Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Marketing, and several other journals. He is currently a member of the Editorial Review Board of the Journal of Consumer Psychology and served for several years as a member of the Editorial Review Board of the Journal of Consumer Research.     

The role of rationalization in consumer decision processes: A revisionist approach to consumer behavior

Consumer behavior theory, as it has largely evolved from economics with its rigid adherence to marginal utility theory, suggests that consumers are highly rational and that they basically strive to maximize utility or satisfaction by the careful rationing of resources. In this paper, the typical assumptions in consumer decision process models are reviewed and analyzed, the empirical evidence supporting the models of the rational consumer is challenged, the concept of rationalization is developed and the existential support for the concept is examined, the role and significance of alternative ego state on consumer decision processes are explained and finally, the rudiments of a revisionist approach to consumer behavior are advanced. An earlier draft of this paper entitled “Consumer Decision Processes: The Role and Influence of Rationalization” was presented at the annual meeting of The American Psychological Association Division 23 in 1977. The author was assisted in the preparation and development of this earlier draft by Dr. Chem Narayana. This assistance is herewith acknowledged.     

The role of competitive alternatives in the postchoice satisfaction formation process

A general model of satisfaction formation is proposed that extends the seminal disconfirmation of expectations model by explicitly incorporating the processing of both chosen and nonchosen alternatives. Using presidential election data, the results show that satisfaction with the nonchoice does remain salient in the determination of overall postchoice satisfaction. Disconfirmation related to either the chosen or the nonchosen alternative influences satisfaction with both the chosen and the nonchosen alternative. Overall, the model suggests that the nonchoice alternative may continue to be relevant in the satisfaction formation process. She received her Ph.D. from McGill University. Her work has appeared in theJournal of Marketing Research, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, International Journal of Research in Marketing, Decision Sciences, Journal of Macromarketing, and numerous other journals and conference proceedings. She is also coauthor of three books. She holds a Ph.D. in marketing from Michigan State University. Her work has appeared in theJournal of the Academy of Marketing Science; Journal of Business Research; International Journal of Research in Marketing; Journal of Services Marketing; Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior; and other journals and conference proceedings. Dr. Halstead was formerly an account executive with Needham Harper Worldwide and Director of Marketing and Media Services at Maxwell Advertising. Robert D. Mackoy received his Ph.D. from Michigan State University and is an assistant professor of marketing at Butler University. His research has appeared in theJournal of Retailing; Journal of Macromarketing; Journal of Services Marketing; Journal of Social Psychology; Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior; and the proceedings of the American Marketing Association, Association for Consumer Research, and Marketing and Public Policy conferences.     

The role of customer service in determining customer satisfaction

Most consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction research is focussed either on identifying product classes and personal/usage characteristics associated with dissatisfaction, or is focussed on modelling the psychological processes underlying the phenomenon. Most retailers, on the other hand, focus only on handling customer complaints. This paper focuses on retailer controllable sources of customer dissatisfaction. Findings from a large scale Canadian survey of 982 cases of recent automobile buyers show that while there are some differences in the determinants of consumer satisfaction among four different car models, it is the dealer-related factors that exert the greatest effects. Specific implications are highlighted for the retailer’s attention and possible retail responses are discussed.     

Agency and trust mechanisms in consumer satisfaction and loyalty judgments

The authors propose a framework for understanding key mechanisms that shape satisfaction in individual encounters, and loyalty across ongoing exchanges. In particular, the framework draws together two distinct approaches: (1) agency theory, rooted in the economic approach, that views relational exchanges as encounters between principals (consumers) and agents (service providers) and (2) trust research that adopts a psychological approach toward consumer-provider relationships. In so doing, the authors specify how trust mechanisms cooperate and compete with agency mechanisms to affect satisfaction in individual encounters and influence loyalty in the long run. Because a multidimensional conceptualization of trust is used, the hypothesized framework offers a fine-grained understanding of the interrelated mechanisms. The high level of specificity allows extraction of multiple propositions, facilitates empirical testing, and encourages theoretical development of the proposed model. Several directions to guide future research are provided. Jagdip Singh is Professor of Marketing at the Weatherhead School of Management at Case Western Reserve University. His current research interests include consumer dissatisfaction and complaint responses, O-P-C (organization-person-customer) processes that occur in frontline/boundary roles, and measurement issues in marketing. He has published in theJournal of Marketing, theJournal of Marketing Research, theJournal of the Academy of Marketing Science, theJournal of International Business Studies, andPsychological Assessment, among others. Deepak Sirdeshmukh is Assistant Professor of Marketing at the Weatherhead School of Management at Case Western Reserve University. His current research involves a multiindustry examination of the role of trust in building consumer-firm relationships. Other research interests include consumer evaluation of brand extensions and consumer information processing. He has published in theJournal of Marketing Research, theJournal of Consumer Research, and theJournal of Consumer Psychology.     

Dimensions of consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction with services: The case of electric utilities

This paper reports the results of research designed to explore the dimensions of consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction with various aspects of electric utility company performance and to develop psychographic, demographic, political orientation and media usage profiles of these satisfied/dissatisfied persons. Distinct differences between the two groups emerged which are not totally consistent with previous findings about consumers dissatisfied with tangible products. Directions for future research are suggested.     

零售企业服务补救与顾客满意关系实证研究

零售企业作为典型的服务提供者,在服务过程中出现服务失败和顾客不满是不可避免的,这就要求企业对其失误进行补救,最大限度的降低顾客的不满,这就是服务补救。服务补救适当可以重建顾客满意,留住顾客,赢得“二次成功”。研究结果检验了零售企业的补救措施对于顾客满意的影响,以及顾客满意度形成过程中顾客感知公平的中介作用,并提出了相应的对策。     

Factors influencing the likelihood of customer defection: The role of consumer knowledge

Customer satisfaction is the predominant metric firms use for detecting and managing customers' likelihood to defect. But while satisfaction and defection are related, satisfaction is only a weak predictor of whether a customer will defect. This article suggests that for repurchase decisions that involve an information-based evaluation of alternatives to the incumbent, likelihood of defection will be influenced by “how much” customers know about those alternatives. The relationship between level of knowledge about alternatives and defection is examined in the context of actual health insurance choices. Results suggest that the level of objective and subjective knowledge about alternatives has a direct effect on likelihood of defection—above and beyond satisfaction level. The view of defection forwarded in this article suggests that managers may be able to gain additional control over customer defection through actions aimed at influencing how much customers know (or come to know) about alternative vendors. Anthony J. Capraro (tcapraro@unca.edu), an assistant professor at the University of North Carolina at Asheville, earned his Ph.D. in marketing in 1999 from the University of Texas after having spent 20 years in industry in marketing and marketing management positions. His current research interest focuses on developing and enhancing the value of a firm's customer base. Susan Broniarczyk (Susan.Broniarczyk@bus.utexas.edu), an associate professor at the University of Texas at Austin, earned her Ph.D. in marketing from the University of Florida. She serves on the editorial boards of theJournal of Consumer Research and theJournal of Marketing Research and the advisory board for the Association for Consumer Research. Her research, which examines consumer decision making and how consumers' knowledge structures affect their reaction to missing or conflicting product information, appears in theJournal of Consumer Research, theJournal of Marketing Research, andOrganizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. Rajendra K. Srivastava (Rajendra.Srivastava@bus.utexas.edu) is the Jack R. Crosby Regent's Chair in Business and a professor of marketing and management science and information systems (MSIS) in the McCombs School of Business at the University Texas at Austin. He is also the Daniel J. Jordan Research Scholar at Emory University. He earned his doctorate from the University of Pittsburgh. His research, which spans marketing and finance, has been published in theJournal of Marketing, theJournal of Marketing Research, Marketing Science, and theJournal of Banking and Finance. His current research interests focus on the impact of marketing strategy and market-based assets on corporate financial performance, particularly in the context of technology-intensive products and services.     

The impact of social influence and role expectations on shopping center patronage intentions

Shopping is generally a socially visible behavior, frequently done while accompanied by friends or family. The importance of the social interaction achieved through shopping would suggest that social referents may affect the patronage behavior of consumers. However, the ability of social referents to influence patronage may depend on how important the role of shopper is to the individual. Historically, females were expected to assume the role of shopper. But there is evidence that currently the role of shopper has increased in importance for males while decreasing for females who do not occupy the role of housewives. This study used a behavioral intentions modeling approach to investigate the strength and significance of social referent influence on three shopper segments with differing types of role expectations. The shopping orientations and retail feature preferences of the three segments were also measured. The findings suggest there are important differences among the three groups. His primary research interests are in the areas of sales, sales management, and marketing management. His work has appeared in a variety of publications such as theJournal of Marketing, Journal of Advertising, Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, Industrial Marketing Management, and a number of conference proceedings. In addition to his research interests, he has worked in a consulting capacity addressing sales and sales management issues in the insurance and banking industries. in the consumer science and retailing department. He received his Ph.D. in marketing from Arizona State University. His primary research interests are in the areas of retail management and marketing strategy. He has coauthored articles in theJournal of Consumer Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior andJournal of Customer Service in Marketing and Management and has presented a number of papers at various conferences. James D. Gill is vice president of Intersearch Corporation, where he is responsible for the design, implementation, and management of customer satisfaction measurement programs. Prior to joining Intersearch, he was vice president of client services for Walker: Customer Satisfaction Measurements for 5 years. He was also a marketing professor at Arizona State University for 7 years. He has published in theJournal of Marketing, Journal of Advertising, Public Opinion Quarterly, andCurrent Issues and Research in Advertising, among others. He is a graduate of the University of Nebraska, where he received a Ph.D. in business, an M.A. in marketing, and a B.S. in business administration.     

Product intelligence: its conceptualization,measurement and impact on consumer satisfaction

In the last decade, companies have developed a large number of intelligent products. Due to the use of information technology, these products operate somewhat autonomously, cooperate with other products, or adapt to changing circumstances. Based on a literature review and interviews with practitioners, the present article conceptualizes product intelligence and describes a procedure to measure the construct. The article also explores the link of product intelligence to consumer satisfaction through the innovation attributes of relative advantage, compatibility, and complexity. The article considers practical and theoretical implications and identifies future research directions.

Great expectations and broken promises: misleading claims,product failure,expectancy disconfirmation and consumer distrust

Previous research in the product failure literature shows that such failures have important implications for evaluations of the target product, and even for evaluations of closely related products. The current studies identify distrust as an additional byproduct of negative expectancy disconfirmation and show that such perceptions are capable of producing even broader carryover effects—pertaining to unrelated products/companies. The effects of distrust are identified through tests of mediation and moderation, and are shown to be distinct from other processes known to relate to product failure. The results also show an asymmetry in the effects of positive and negative disconfirmation, consistent with the predicted negativity bias in judgments of generalized trust versus generalized distrust. Finally, generalized distrust continued to exert a negative influence despite the opportunity to directly examine the second product, and these effects were actually augmented to some extent. The results have implications for the expectancy disconfirmation and product failure literatures, as well as the defensive bias model of distrust.     

The role of satisfaction with territory design on the motivation, attitudes, and work outcomes of salespeople

The primary emphasis of previous research concerning salespeople has been focused on their attitudes and behavior. The relationship between organizational variables and salesperson attitudes and behavior has received very limited attention. Sales territory design is largely uncontrollable by the salesperson, yet is acknowledged by managers and researchers as an important factor enabling salespeople to perform well. The objective is to examine satisfaction with territory design from the perspective of the salesperson. A conceptual model and hypotheses are developed linking the satisfaction with territory design with role ambiguity, intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, and performance. Role conflict, met expectations, organizational commitment, and intention to leave are also included in the model. Survey results provide strong support for 19 of the 21 hypotheses examined. The findings offer significant insights concerning the role of territory design satisfaction in face-to-face selling and its consequences. Several managerial implications and avenues for future research are discussed. Ken Grant is the deputy head in the Department of Marketing, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a member of the editorial boards of theEuropean Journal of Marketing and theJournal of Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Science. He has published in theInternational Journal of Research in Marketing, European Journal of Marketing, Industrial Marketing Management, and several other journals. He advises companies on marketing planning, new products, and sales management and conducts research and publishes in these areas. David W. Cravens holds the Eunice and James L. West Chair of American Enterprise Studies at Texas Christian University. His research on sales management and marketing strategy has been published in theJournal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, and other leading journals in marketing and management. Before becoming an educator, he held various industry and government executive positions. He is internationally recognized for his research on marketing strategy and sales management. He has been a visiting scholar at universities in Austria, Australia, Chile, Czech Republic, England, Ireland, Germany, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, and Wales. His textbook,Strategic Marketing (Irwin/McGraw-Hill 2000), is widely used in strategy and management courses. George S. Low is an associate professor of marketing in the M. J. Neeley School of Business, Texas Christian University. He received a B.A. in advertising from Brigham Young University, an M.B.A. from the Richard Ivey School of Business at the University of Western Ontario, and a Ph.D. in marketing from the University of Colorado-Boulder. His research on the management of integrated marketing communications and brands has been published in theJournal of Marketing Research, Journal of Retailing, Journal of Advertising Research, Marketing Management, Marketing Science Institute’s Working Paper Series, and other journals. William C. Moncrief is a senior associate dean and professor of marketing at Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas. He received his B.Sc. in political science and his M.B.A. from the University of Mississippi. He completed his Ph.D. at Louisiana State University in 1983. His work has been published in leading marketing and sales journals, including theJournal of Marketing Research, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, European Journal of Marketing, Journal of Business Research, Industrial Marketing Management, andJournal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, among others. His research interests are in the field of sales management and include topics such as sales deployment, sales contests, international sales, telemarketing, turnover, laptop computers, sales job activities, and quality control. He has taught in Germany, conducted research in Europe, and has most recently consulted in Mexico.     

Models of consumer behavior: The state of the art

Models of consumer behavior have gained much acceptance since the early sixties. The purpose of this article is to examine the state of the art by reviewing the often cited models: Nicosia, Howard-Sheth, and Engel-Blackwell-Kollat. Specifically, a major objective is to consider these models from their practical utility standpoint, i.e., whether the models can be tested and used by marketers. To accomplish this, a set of criteria is developed for evaluation of models in general, and consumer/buyer behavior models in particular. The criteria used for evaluating the state of the art in consumer behavior models are largely derived from model building sources in various fields. The results indicate that although the models are quite impressive in scope, they are inherently weak to be of much help to the marketing practitioner. Indeed, none of the models have been tested as a whole in their original form because they lack specificity and thus are difficult, if not impossible, to operationalize. This article is partially based on a paper which received an award in an Academy of Marketing Science student paper competioion. The Academy encourages scholarly work by various groups through annual competitions and awards.     

The effect of superstitious beliefs on performance expectations

We explore superstitious beliefs as a basis of product performance expectations and their impact on initial purchase likelihood and subsequent satisfaction. In doing so, we demonstrate instances when superstition-driven expectations cause consumers to make purchase decisions that run counter to economic rationality. In the first set of studies we find that Taiwanese consumers are relatively more likely to purchase a product with positive superstitious associations based on its “lucky” color, and are more likely to purchase and are willing to pay more money for a product with a smaller but “lucky” number of units contained in the package (e.g., eight tennis balls compared to ten). In contrast, consumers who do not hold such superstitious beliefs adhere to the more rational choice paradigm. Next, we show that the differences in purchase likelihood are driven by superstition-based performance expectations. We further generalize these findings to product satisfaction, and find support for expectation disconfirmation sensitivity as a moderator of the effect.

The erosion of the unusual susceptibility defense: The case of the disadvantaged consumer

Marketing practitioners and academics have exhibited an increased concern for the problems of disadvantaged consumers in recent years. During the same time period, the product liability field has become increasingly volatile. In this article the overlap between these two seemingly independent trends is presented via hypothetical case examples. A decision process to guide marketers who potentially deal with disadvantaged market segments is outlined and discussed. The implications of these developments are also described in detail.     

Resistance to technological innovations: An examination of the role of self-efficacy and performance satisfaction

Technological innovation is seen as the key to survival and success for many firms. Whether intended for internal use or for customers, adoption decisions must consider the response of the final user to such technological alternatives. This paper argues for greater attention to the factors which cause individual resistance to technological innovations. The results of two studies are reported which examined the effects of self-efficacy (Bandura 1977) and performance satisfaction on consumers’ response to technological changes. Results indicate that a person’s perceived ability to use a product successfully affects their evaluative and behavioral response to the product. In addition, the level of satisfaction experienced with an existing behavior increases resistance to and reduces likelihood of adopting an alternative.     

Role conflict,role clarity,job tension and job satisfaction in the brand manager position

One hundred ninety-eight brand managers were examined on four important role decisions: role conflict, role clarity, job tension, and job satisfaction. Role conflict was significantly related to role clarity, job tension, and job satisfaction. Role clarity was related to job tension and job satisfaction at significant levels and job tension was significantly related to job satisfaction. All relationships occurred in the expected directions. Four independent variables were analyzed with these four role dimensions: personal factors, organizational factors, involvement with product decisions, and level of contact with interfaces. Significant relationships were found only for involvement with product decisions and level of contact on the job satisfaction dimension.     

将最好的产品以最好的方式给最好的用户--记北京智泽华软件公司

看到过许多结局黯然的创业故事，也采访过一些轰轰烈烈创业、最终悲壮收场的创业者，更有些人会拿着产品感叹怎么会没有市场。他们没搞懂的是：他们也许在营销策略上颇费心思，消耗了大笔财力，但有没有瞄准最合适的用户．并采用最合适的促销方法呢？创业成功之所以很难，在于创业者必须具备成功的每一个要素．缺一不可。而北京智泽华软件公司就有这些让人羡慕的资本同行中最好的产品、针对最有潜力的市场采用最准确的销售方法。所以．它的成功早就在董事长张金昌的意料之中，并且势在必得。