Development of size labelling systems for women's garments

This paper reviews the development of size labelling systems for women's garments sold in the U.S.A. The review shows that three trends are evident: (1) a continuous decrease in the numerical codes of sizes; (2) an emphasis on large and petite sizes; and (3) the introduction of split sizes. Problems with the size labelling systems currently in use in the U.S.A. are also discussed. A survey of consumers' preferences regarding various size labelling system is recommended.     

SIZE LABELLING OF FOOTWEAR

This article briefly describes the existing systems of shoe sizing and explains in detail the new Mondopoint System of size labelling of footwear. The author describes how this new system evolved and how it is being introduced both in the UK and internationally.     

COMPUTER ASSISTED ANALYSIS OF CONSUMER COMPLAINTS OF TEXTILE ITEMS

Results of the analysis of consumer complaints to Citizens' Advice Centres indicate that many of the complaints concerning textile articles are unfounded. This is often due to a lack of appreciation of such factors as the properties of different materials, care and size labelling and correct washing and ironing procedures.     

Evaluating the Behavioural Impact of the Australian and New Zealand Genetically Modified Food Labelling Provisions

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a choice experiment that encompassed the labelling options outlined in the Australian and New Zealand government's recently finalized mandatory labelling system for genetically modified foods (GMF's) and foods that contain genetically modified ingredients. The labelling scheme is to be implemented across both countries from December 2001 onwards. Results suggest difficulties ahead for manufacturers and growers of GM labelled product if there is an ample supply of GM-free labelled alternatives. It is also likely that manufacturers and growers of GM-free product will realize greater levels of demand over non-labelled and GM product even when these alternatives are substantially cheaper.     

Labelling fashion markets

The present article discusses how an ethical and environmental labelling system can be implemented in fashion garment markets. Consumers act in markets that provide them with more information than their limited cognitive capacity allows them to handle. Ethical and environmental labelling in markets characterized by change, such as the fashion garment market, makes decision‐making even more complicated. The ethical and environmental labelling system proposed here is designed to alleviate firms' administrative burden and give consumers more choice. It proposes that information on ethical and environmentally friendly production should be combined to enable consumers to decide whether they want to contribute an extra sum for the item they purchase in the store, which would then be transferred to the workers or an environmental organization. The beneficiaries – garment workers in developing countries and environmental organizations – would decide what to do with the money. This is a simpler and more direct solution than those suggested by scholars and activists trying to solve the problems of ‘sweatshops’ and the environmental consequences of the production of fashion garments. It also reduces administration compared with existing systems. At the same time, it can be implemented alongside systems based on strict regulation of production.     

TEXTILE CARE LABELLING

This paper provides a brief history of the development in the standardization of textile care labelling, both in the United Kingdom and internationally, since 1950, explains in detail the current UK system, and concludes with some thoughts on future developments.     

Consumer consumption intentions of smaller packaged snack variants

Smaller snack package variants are ubiquitous in the food marketplace. Although it is assumed that consumers intend to consume less because snacks are placed into smaller packages, consumer intentions are never measured. This research examines dietary‐restrained consumers' consumption intentions of smaller snack package variants found in the marketplace described by snack type (i.e. less healthy, more healthy – as per Guiding Stars® food labelling system) and front‐of‐package calorie labelling (99 calories, 100 calories). We conducted an online experiment wherein 203 participants were exposed to the aforementioned snack package variants and their consumption intentions were subsequently measured. A regression analysis revealed that consumers who are highly dietary restrained intend to consume more when (a) the snack is relatively healthier and (b) it includes 99‐calorie front‐of‐package labelling. We discuss the idea that dietary‐restrained consumers are not likely to view smaller packaged snacks as portion control devices, but rather, as a means to eat more of a healthier food.     

The Effect of Organic Food Labels on Consumer Attention

This paper aims to reveal consumer perceptions of organic food with a special emphasis on the labelling of organic products. The objectives were to find out, whether or not a significant difference between men´s and women´s perception existed. Two groups (88 subjects in the experimental group, 59 subjects in the control group) were shown various food labels; with organic product labelling (experimental) and without (control). Results suggest the importance of organic labelling using eye-tracking data and additional in-depth interviews to discover the importance of the labelling for participants. Based on eye-tracking data, the greatest visual attention was paid to product brand, graphic elements and organic labelling claims with additional information, such as a quantity or flavour, also being important. Additional in-depth interviews discovered that labelling, particularly of the origin, is important for most consumers. Contrary to what was expected, eye-tracking showed very little difference in the perception of organic product labelling based on gender. Although organic food is being purchased by more people, 50% of participants mentioned, during interviews, that they buy organic food only occasionally. The combination of eye-tracking and in-depth interviews shows that organic product labelling can play a role in decision-making, but regardless 27% of participants do not care about the organic quality labels or don’t pay attention to them.     

Green decisions: demographics and consumer understanding of environmental labels

This research examined the demographic profiles of Australian green consumers in relation to their satisfaction of environmental labelling. It examined consumers’ understanding of labelling and empirically investigated the association of demographic profile of consumers with their attitudes towards such labels. The results indicated that some of the demographic variables were significant, which is largely consistent with earlier findings by other researchers in this area. Label dissatisfaction was higher in the older and middle age respondents. However, some respondents disagreed that labels were accurate while commenting that labels were easy to understand. The key issue arising from the findings is that in order to provide perception of accuracy in labels, it is an option to use Type I or Type III labelling on products. These labels are, arguably, more credible because they are endorsed by third party labelling experts. This would come at a cost and for green products that use third party labelling, they will also have to bear in mind to keep the prices competitive.     

Labelling genetically modified food products: consumers’ concern in the United Kingdom

An online survey method was used to collect data regarding the concern and attitude of UK consumers towards genetically modified (GM) food labelling. Questionnaires were sent to 9000 participants of the online panel via emails, and 2568 consumers completed the online survey. The response rate was 29%. This study found that more than 75% of the consumers questioned were concerned about the labelling of food products with GM ingredients. Eight perceived risks and benefits of agro‐biotechnology were identified to be associated with consumers’ attitude towards GM food labelling. Among them, three were perceived benefits, such as reduced use of chemicals in crop production, improved nutritional content, and increased yields. The five perceived risks were health risks, environmental risks, moral considerations, image of multinational corporations as the primary beneficiaries of biotechnology, and growing control of multinational corporations over farming. While all five perceived risks from GM food played a statistically significant role in shaping the overall attitude towards GM labelling, improved nutritional content due to application of biotechnology was the only benefit that was statistically significant. Age of the respondents was the only demographic variable playing a statistically significant role in shaping the attitude of respondents towards GM food labelling. Older respondents were more likely to be concerned about the existing GM labelling practices than younger respondents.     

Evaluation of food labelling usefulness for consumers

Food labelling is a means of communication between food business operators and consumers, representing an important factor in consumer purchasing decisions. The enforcement of the new food labelling policy is aimed to improve food safety and public health through the mandatory indication of information and nutritional values. To understand the usefulness of the information provided for consumers, a survey was carried out to assess the efficacy of the information presented in food labelling. Principal component analysis was performed to obtain a smaller number of uncorrelated factors regarding the usefulness of food labelling. Results showed consumers usually do not read food labels due to lack of time and excessive information. Additionally, food labelling was observed to be more useful for specific consumer groups, such as, athletes, consumers with health conditions or consumers concerned with a healthy lifestyle. The results of the present study highlight the need of information campaigns by public health authorities to show the importance and advantages of reading food labels as well as the development of essential information which should be quickly and clearly seen and understood by consumers.     

Eco‐labelling and the Trade‐Environment Debate

In this paper we consider the effectiveness of eco‐labels as a substitute for alternative, but trade‐restrictive, environmental policies. Specifically, while there are concerns that eco‐labelling requirements increase the cost of international trade, due to their potential for misuse as technical trade barriers, little attention has been given to the environmental benefits of eco‐labelling. We show that incentive problems inherent in eco‐labelling policies make it a very weak tool of environmental policy. Despite this, we argue that eco‐labelling schemes may remain popular, owing to the lack of alternative WTO compliant environmental policies. We also use this framework to consider the economic and political conflicts facing the EU with regard to its policies on genetically modified organisms.     

Consumer‐generated media and product labelling: designed in California,assembled in China

Product country‐of‐origin labelling is an important extrinsic cue for consumers about a product's attributes. In a globalized world where products components and parts originate from multiple countries, companies have resorted to inventive country‐of‐origin labelling. The objective then of this paper is to better understand consumers' evaluation of products that have inventive country‐of‐origin labelling (i.e. Designed in California, Assembled in China). Exploratory qualitative data were collected from consumer‐generated media (36 weblogs) using Nielsen's Research BlogPulse tool. A grounded theory analysis revealed that four key themes emerged from the data that related to confusion about the labelling strategy, strong symbolic and emotional ties to country‐of‐origin, and the importance of country‐of‐origin as a quality signal.     

Price rather than nutrition information the main influencer of consumer food purchasing behaviour in South Africa: A qualitative study

In South Africa there has been a paucity of data on food and nutrition labelling since the publication of the new food‐labelling legislation. This study aimed to explore whether the nutrition information on food products influences consumer purchasing behaviour; reasons for reading or ignoring nutrition information on labels, and to investigate expectations regarding food / nutrition labelling. Nine focus‐group discussions were held with adult consumers (N=67) in Cape Town, South Africa. Food price was sometimes the only consideration when selecting food products, irrespective of quality and nutritional value. When buying products for the first time, consumers were more inclined to read the nutrition information compared to habitual purchases or buying known brands. The list of ingredients, nutrient content claims and specific health endorsement logos were considered important. Reasons for reading nutrition information were mainly to assess the nutritional value or health properties, to avoid certain ingredients/allergens and to determine quality. Consumers struggled to understand the information on labels, specifically the nutrition information table. A lack of time or interest, price concerns and trust in labelling information also emerged as reasons why consumers ignore the nutrition information. There is a need for simpler food labelling, more graphics, and less complex terminology, information overload and quantitative information. It is recommended that a standardised front‐of‐package labelling scheme and a single health endorsement logo for South Africa be considered. More should be done to educate consumers on utilising the information on food labels correctly, in order for them to make healthier food choices.     

Creating markets for eco‐labelling: are consumers insignificant?

The proliferation of voluntary certification and labelling schemes for environmentally and socially responsible production is often seen as driven by companies and consumer demand. Through a careful examination of the initiation and spread of such initiatives in the fishery and forestry sectors, this paper challenges a rational–economic perspective that sees the spread of nonstate governance schemes primarily as a market‐driven phenomenon. Drawing on a political consumerism perspective, the paper argues that transnational environmental group networks and their targeting of firms were key to the emergence of nonstate eco‐labelling schemes, and that most firms decided to support or participate in such schemes only after intensive environmental group pressure. The paper opposes the view that nonstate governance challenges traditional state authority, by showing that states, through public procurement policies and support, contributed to create markets for forestry and fishery labelling in many countries. Although some states have been more sceptical of fishery labelling, largely because of the way fishery resources are managed, they have come to accept it as a helpful supplement to public rules and regulations.     

Consumers' Attitudes Toward Labelling of Ethical Products: The Case of Organic and Fair Trade Products

This article aims to investigate the factors that influence consumer attitudes to use labelling information in purchasing organic and Fair Trade products and to verify if labelling is a valid tool of direct shopping aid to consumers, with a view to derive inferences that may contribute to better strategic and tactical marketing decisions. A quantitative survey with a sample of 300 consumers living in south Italy was conducted to explore consumers' knowledge and attitudes toward labelling of organic and fair trade products. Data generated in this way were submitted to exploratory and segmentation analysis. The results indicate significant differences in consumer attitudes and behavior for ethical products and show the importance of new variables, other than demographics characteristics, that can influence the purchasing behavior and label information use.     

Food allergic consumers' preferences for labelling practices: a qualitative study in a real shopping environment

Food allergy is a chronic disease that can only be managed through avoidance of problematic proteins in the diet. Inappropriate communication about food allergens can cause stress and insecurity, which may have a negative impact on quality of life. The aim was to investigate whether information provided through current labelling practices meets the need of food allergic consumers. A total of 40 participants (20 adult food allergy suffers and 20 parents of food allergic children) were recruited from two different European countries (Greece and The Netherlands), and interviewed while shopping in a supermarket. Participants were asked to purchase 15 potentially problematic food items as if for their own household. Their information search behaviour was observed, and participants were questioned about their preferences for food allergen information provision. Participants reported experiencing problems associated with current food allergy information provision. It was reported that inappropriate use of fonts, colours and languages, application of precautionary labelling and lack of harmonization in labelling practices across countries can cause (un)necessary dietary restrictions for food allergic consumers. Research is needed to investigate the feasibility and implementation possibilities for new information delivery strategies and amendments to existing European labelling policy.     

Certification and product testing. Some problems in consumer information systems

Well-known problems in technical product testing are lack of reproducibility of test methods and performance differences between “identical” products (also referred to as the sampling problem). The Dutch certification institute IVHA has incorporated these phenomena in its consumer information system in such a way that they can be dealt with adequately. A number of principles in the IVHA approach are also applicable to comparative testing and informative labelling. An active dialogue with suppliers is an important element in the IVHA approach.     

Investing in consumer confidence through genetically modified labelling: an evaluation of compliance options and their marketing challenges for Australian firms

A significant number of studies have examined aspects of consumer responses towards genetically modified foods (GMFs). However, much of this effort has resulted in somewhat mixed findings which have not added real value in terms of providing viable directions for international and national organisations concerned with the labelling of GMFs. This is particularly true in an environment where labelling regulation is increasingly inconsistent and may therefore present real barriers to international trade and the marketing and sales of these food products.

The aim of this article therefore is to shed light on the extent to which the labelling impositions on genetically modified foods would impact on the overall viability of the GMF industry particularly from an international and firm perspective. To this end, a selection of literatures that cover labelling issues in Europe, USA, Canada and Australasia were distilled in order to better understand the pros and cons of labelling disclosures globally and from these present a platform for future marketing and implementation scenarios in Australia.

On the basis of this literature synthesis, we propose that the success of the GMF imperative is contingent on two levels of compliance. First, at the global level, there is need for greater international consensus regarding uniformity of standards of regulation that would allow for fair trade particularly through such bodies as the World Trade Organisation. By implication, Australia would require to adopt levels of compliance that are comparable to the stringent European Union requirements in order to be able to access those markets and any others. Second, we note that at the firm level, whilst production costs in developing appropriate labelling disclosures can be expected to rise on account of higher standards of compliance, these would be more than offset by the increase in consumer confidence as a consequence of the opportunity to make more informed choices. This in turn would generate positive Word of Mouth most likely resulting in increased uptake and adoption of GMFs generally thus allowing for disclosure costs to fall over time.     

Understanding consumers' perspectives on food labelling in India

This study aims at identifying the factors influencing consumers' perception on food labelling and its impact on food purchase decision making, through personal interviews of 631 respondents using a structured questionnaire. To analyse the consumers' perceptions on food labelling, factor analysis has been carried out to identify the underlying dimensions among a set of food labelling attributes using the principal component analysis. Based on factor analysis, four sets of components/factors have emerged, that is, (i) serving method; (ii) quality and nutrition; (iii) production and storage; and (iv) product identification, which explain 66.271% of the variance. Logit regression analysis indicates that among the socio‐demographic indicators, the estimated coefficients for gender, education, income and location of residence are statistically significant. Similarly, information on quality and nutrition, production and storage processes, and basic information of the product is found to be significant, implying that these factors are more likely to influence the use of food labels in making informed purchase decisions by the consumers. The findings of the study give practical insights on food labelling issues for the food processors and policy makers.