Stakeholders’ perceptions of forestry in rural areas—Two case studies in Ireland

Ireland has undergone a substantial afforestation programme in the last 20 years, resulting in the forest cover increasing from 4.8% of the land area in 1983 to a current level of 10%. This paper presents the results of a study undertaken to assess stakeholders’ perceptions of forestry in two case study areas in Ireland. The two areas, Shillelagh and Newmarket, were chosen because their demographic characteristics varied as did their history of forestry development. However, the current forest cover is similar in the two areas both in terms of species composition and extent. Qualitative techniques, involving interviews with stakeholders, were used. There were striking differences in the perceptions of forestry in the cases study areas. In Shillelagh, which had a longer history of forest cover and a more urbanized population than Newmarket, forestry was considered part both of the local history and traditional landscape. Forests were valued for their amenity and recreation functions rather than their economic function. In contrast, perceptions of forestry in Newmarket were negative. Forestry was considered to be an isolating agent which was not part of the landscape of the area. The forests were also considered to have negligible amenity value. These negative perceptions in Newmarket seem to be linked to the dominance of Sitka spruce, an exotic conifer, in the forests. Stakeholders expressed the desire that if forestry was to expand further in the area that it would be through the planting of broadleaf species rather than conifers. The fact that these negative perceptions did not emerge in Shillelagh despite it having a similar species composition is attributed to the more gradual rate of afforestation and thus landscape change in the area. The lack of consultation and approach to planning regarding afforestation proposals was identified as a key issue in Newmarket with stakeholders expressing the wish that they should be consulted more when afforestation was planned. Greater community involvement in the planning of afforestation proposals is recommended as a means of improving consultation and to help dispel negative perceptions. The paper concludes by highlighting that perceptions of forestry within an area are dynamic and are influenced by the history of forestry development in that area.     

How to fight against southern pine beetle epidemics: An insurance approach

The southern pine beetle (SPB) is among the leading biological agents killing southern pine species in the eastern United States. In light of recognized spatiotemporal autocorrelation in SPB outbreaks, we devise a spatiotemporal block bootstrapping method that can be applied to analyze spatiotemporally dependent infestations. We also identify the relevant risk determinants and evaluate their impacts on the frequency of SPB outbreaks. For example, we find forest type, climate, and natural disasters like storm and forest management are all significantly associated with SPB risks. Using the results of a statistical model, we design a county-level group index insurance plan that generates estimates of actuarially fair premium rates for timber stands containing southern pine species. Given that no government-provided compensation scheme for SPB epidemics currently exists, application of this new insurance product could reduce forest owners losses. Our study offers an approach to analyzing and protecting against risks of other destructive pests affecting the timber sector.     

Agricultural landscape dynamics in response to economic transition: Comparisons between different spatial planning zones in Ningbo region,China

Many major agricultural regions worldwide are experiencing drastic landscape transformations. Examining the complex links among agricultural landscape dynamics (ALD), land use and land cover (LULC) change, socioeconomic development and government planning is pivotal to enhance the efficiency of agricultural landscape management. With a case of the Ningbo region (China), this paper employs the structural equation modeling (SEM) to quantify and compare the relationships between ALD and economic transition as well as the mediating LULC factors in different spatial planning zones. ALD are quantified by time series remotely sensed imageries and a set of landscape metrics; and economic transition is described by a set of indicators from three aspects (globalization, decentralization and marketization). Results show that ALD present similar trend in the two spatial planning zones between 1979 and 2013. However, the magnitude of ALD is larger in the non-urban planning zone. In particular, agricultural landscapes change into the fragmented, irregular, decreased, and isolated patterns at a more rapid pace. Economic transition drivers and LULC mediators differ remarkably between the two spatial planning zones. For the urban planning zone, economic transition influences ALD through construction land morphological changes and water body spatial density increases. For the non-urban planning zone, economic transition influences ALD through forest morphological changes and construction land spatial density increases. In addition, the relative importance of ALD determinants differs between the two spatial planning zones. Marketization plays a more critical role in driving ALD in the urban planning zone, while decentralization has a stronger impact on ALD in the non-urban planning zone. It is argued that land use master plan for agricultural landscape protection should be implemented in the non-urban planning zones and land use plan in the two spatial planning zones should be integrated. This study contributes to the understanding of the complex mechanism of ALD in response to economic transition.     

Sustainable locating of different forest uses

This study describes an approach whereby it is possible to promote social, ecological and economic sustainability by paying attention to the effectiveness of locating different forest uses and to anticipating conflict situations. It introduces a geographic information system (GIS) based method enabling the user to evaluate certain sub-areas in accordance with the requirements of each forest use to be practised in them. Moreover, the method enables the user to combine compatible forms of use and thereby to locate the areas most important from the point of view of the group of compatible forms of use. This information can be utilised when selecting small set-aside areas in commercial forests where wood production is not the main use form. Areas subject to use pressures from two or more incompatible forest uses can be found by comparing suitability maps of incompatible uses. Coming to a head of conflict situations can often be prevented by identifying those areas, which are subject to conflicting objectives. This method makes use of GIS tools when evaluating the sub-areas for the purpose of producing the required knowledge, and for combining and describing sub-areas in the form of suitability maps. The methods of multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) are used in evaluating and making commensurable the different objectives. The method produces theme maps describing (i) the best sub-areas from the point of view of compatible forest uses within a certain area and (ii) in the case of incompatible forest uses those sub-areas where the biggest conflicts can be expected. The method is illustrated by a case study in which the compatibility of the forms of use to be practised within a certain forest area are clarified and targets involving potential conflict situations are sought.     

区域景观格局视角的绿地生态网络优化研究*——以徐州为例

[目的]基于景观格局演变的区域绿地生态网络与生态功能优化研究是景观生态学研究的热点领域之一。[方法]文章以徐州示范为例,在城市研究区景观格局演变及其异质性研究分析基础上,探索城市规划区城乡绿地景观格局的优化路径;运用经济学与生态学原理,按“山水林田湖草”一体化理念,以区域生态系统服务优化及人与自然和谐发展为前提,从市域与城市规划区视角,合理配置城乡绿地生态网络景观组分,进而优化区域绿地生态网络。[结果]研究得出2005—2015年研究范围城市化造成大量耕地消失,城市建设用地快速增加,随着生态园林建设的快速推进,林地面积占比大幅度增加;地表覆被变化直接表现为景观格局的快速破碎化和景观多样性的下降,景观类型的丰富度和复杂度急需提高,景观多样性指数、景观均匀度指数也均呈现较为明显的下降趋势。同时,重点提出了强化景观格局与过程的完整性与连通性,挖掘潜在生态功能等的区域绿地生态网络一系列优化方案。[结论]文章为研究区及延伸的城乡区域绿地生态网络构建和生态系统服务优化提供了科学的依据、方法与途径。     

露水河林业局森林健康多尺度评价

作为我国森林分布的重要区域,长白山区在木材生产以及维护生态平衡中起着重要作用,承担着区域生态安全等重大责任,因而该区域的森林健康程度在很大程度上影响着其相应功能的发挥。基于露水河林业局森林资源二类调查数据和样地调查数据等,从森林小班、景观尺度构建森林健康评价指标。在森林经营小班尺度上,以现代系统科学理论为基础,从完整性、稳定性和可持续性3个方面初步构建健康评价指标,得到小班健康评价指标7个;在景观尺度上,以景观生态学理论为基础,从结构与格局、功能与过程两个方面初步构建健康评价指标,得到景观健康评价指标5个。在以上指标的基础上,分别对露水河林业局2003年、2010年的森林健康情况进行了评价和比较。结果表明:2003年与2010年,露水河林业局林分水平上处于中等健康和较不健康的最多,面积比例分别为35.32%、35.67%(2003年)和31.30%、40.26%(2010年),属于健康和不健康的小班较少,面积比分别占7.59%、7.71%(2003年)和14.98%、7.20%(2010年),两个年份相比,2010年健康林分的比例和较不健康林分的比例都有所增加。在景观尺度上,杂木林、胡桃楸林、水曲柳林、云杉林等森林景观健康情况较差,2010年与2003年相比,榆树林、樟子松林景观健康状况有了一定好转,而水曲柳林则仍然健康状况堪忧。因此,整体来看露水河林业局森林亟需进行健康经营和管理以提高健康等级。     

不同土地利用情景下农村景观生态格局优化

景观格局优化是实现有限土地资源优化利用的有效途径。文章以重庆市江津区龙华镇为样区,设置4种不同土地利用情景,通过8个景观格局指数与生态阻力对各情景设置进行分析,在此基础上采用最小累积阻力模型,构建不同景观组分别对4种不同土地利用情景(基准情景、生态情景、发展情景、综合情景)的景观格局进行优化,遴选最佳优化路径。结果表明:样区耕地景观占比最大,这有助于促进景观生态功能的开发与利用;样区较高程度的景观破碎化与较差的景观连通性对景观生态功能的开发与利用产生较大的阻碍作用;比较4种土地利用情景,综合情景的生态源面积大于其它3种情景,且生态源的分布情况也较其它3种情景均匀;在构建生态廊道体系时,综合情景下的物质、能量及物种的流通性也较其它3种情景强;而且,综合情景下的生态节点跟其它3种情景相比,无论是在功能数量上还是在空间分布上,均具有更强的合理性。     

Exploring the environmental value of ecosystem services for a river basin through a spatial multicriteria analysis

Environmental quality preservation and nature conservation are complex land use planning problems, involving not only environmental aspects but also socio-economic and operational factors and represent ecosystem services of fundamental importance to human well-being, for health, livelihoods and survival. The present paper proposes a Multicriteria Spatial Decision Support System (MC-SDSS) development for the assessment of the environmental quality of the river basin of the Pellice river in the Province of Turin (Italy) with the objective of increasing awareness of environmental issues in the territorial planning phase. In order to fulfill this goal, the environmental quality issues were divided into two main aspects, “naturalness” and pressures”, which represent the strengths and the weaknesses of the territory. Different criteria were considered for each theme and were integrated into composite maps by a weighted linear combination of factors resulting from a focus group with several experts in different fields. The results of this approach generated a final suitability map of the study area. The map identifies some critical zones that need mitigation measures and highlights areas with high environmental quality which require future specific monitoring procedures and valorization actions. The application was performed by means of the IDRISI software. This paper is based on an integrated approach which facilitates the comprehension of complex phenomena and aims at exploring innovative MCDA models in the field of the environmental quality preservation assessment of territorial transformation.     

Simulating land use changes under alternative policy scenarios for conservation of native forests in south-central Chile

In this study, we combined policy analysis with landscape change modeling to simulate outcomes of alternative forest conservation instruments proposed by opposing policy coalitions. In 1992, concern over rapid land conversion to timber plantations (Pinus radiata and Eucalyptus spp.) in Chile gave rise to a protracted policy process resulting in the 2008 Native Forest Law (NFL), which subsidizes reforestation and management with native forest. To date, however, NFL has had little impact on native forest conservation. To understand how the policy process that created the NFL shaped its outcomes, we employed the Dyna-CLUE modeling approach to simulate land use changes in south-central Chile from 1993 to 2007, based on 3 scenarios: (1) enactment of NFL in 1993 when the law was originally debated, and the different configurations of subsidies and regulations proposed in the NFL policy debate by (2) the industrial forestry coalition and (3) the forest conservation coalition. We observed no major difference in native forest loss between simulated outcomes of the industry-advocated policy and the actual NFL legislation. The conservation coalition’s policy scenario increased native forest area, primarily in shrub steppe areas, but also via conversion of pine plantations if incentive payments were large enough. However, NFL payments are inadequate to make native forest management a viable economic land use alternative to industrial pine plantations, which are also subsidized in Chile. Gains in native forest cover occurred mostly on lands under ancestral indigenous claims (unrelated to the discussion of the NFL). We conclude that the NFL, even if enacted in 1993, would have been ineffective in preventing native forest loss, because tree plantations are more profitable and NFL regulations were weakened by the industrial coalition that opposed—and strongly shaped—the final legislation. Effective incentives for protecting early-successional forests and shrublands are needed to mitigate further losses and foster recovery of Chile’s native forests.     

山岳风景区景观格局时空变化的比较分析

以泰山的佛爷寺和竹林寺两个山岳风景区为研究对象,采用1986年和2004年两期的遥感数据,研究了两个风景区1980年代中期以来景观格局的时空变化特征以及人类活动对景观格局演变的影响。在分析景观多样性、优势度、均匀度、破碎度、扩展度、伸张度指数时间变化的基础上,对景观的空间格局变化趋势进行了对比分析。研究结果表明,两个景区的斑块数量、面积和斑块密度的变化差异明显;两个地区的景观扩展度均远大于1,说明斑块形状不规则。占据优势的森林类型18年来并未遭受严重破坏,两个景区优势度、均匀度变化趋势基本相似,佛爷寺风景区的破碎度远远高于竹林寺,也表明景区建设等人为干扰是景观格局发生变化的主要驱动力。     

基于加权Voronoi多边形的山区农村居民点优化布局———以重庆市崇龛镇与石龙镇为例

中国的城市化进程伴随着农村人口向城市大量转移,使得乡村普遍面临人口流失、耕地撂荒及居民点闲置等问题,严重限制农村地区的经济发展,影响基础设施与公共服务设施的配置效率。优化农村居民点布局,实现资源的集约节约利用是国家新型城镇化规划的重要内容。文章以重庆市潼南县崇龛镇与巴南区石龙镇为例,探讨西南地区农村居民点空间布局优化的科学方法。首先,结合西南地区特有的自然人文条件,运用GIS空间分析技术与景观格局指数分析居民点分布特征;然后,构建包括限制性评价与适宜性评价两个阶段的西南地区居民点综合评价体系;基于对未来乡村发展趋势的判断,依据公平与效率原则,将现有居民点划分为发展型、保留型及迁并型等3类;在此基础上,运用加权Voronoi图确定重点发展型居民点的增长极引力范围,明确迁并型居民点与保留型居民点的发展方向,最终确定农村居民点布局的优化方案。经过优化,崇龛镇基于效率原则确定出222个重点发展型居民点,节约农村居民点用地0.813km2;石龙镇基于公平原则整理出416个重点发展型居民点,节约农村居民点用地0.301km2。研究能为2个示范镇农村居民点的规划优化提供科学依据,也为西南地区开展新型城镇化规划提供参考。     

天鹅山林场森林景观异质性分析

景观空间格局分析是景观生态学研究的核心问题;利用SPOT5数据以及森林资源调查数据在资兴市天鹅山林场开展森林景观异质性分析,对林场森林资源景观分为杉木林、阔叶林、竹林、灌木林、松林、幼林及非林地等7种景观类型,结合Fragstats3.3景观分析软件进行景观格局指数计算,研究结果表明:天鹅山林场一级森林景观斑块总体密度平均值为7.6458块/hm2,在7个森林景观类型中,以竹林的斑块密度最高,其次才是阔叶林、松林、非林地、杉木林和幼林;景观多样性指数为1.5377,均匀度指数为0.7902,优势度指数为0.4802,说明景观异质性较高,景观类型丰富。     

牡丹峰国家森林公园总体规划初探

森林公园开发之前最重要的工作是规划设计,介绍了牡丹峰国家森林公园总体规划初步设想.提出了该区生态旅游的规划构思、布局以及可持续利用的对策,旨在探讨森林公园因地制宜的发展模式.     

Potential hazards of land policy: Conservation,rural development and fire use in the Brazilian Amazon

With growing awareness of fire hazard as an environmental threat within tropical rainforests, the state of Brazil initiated a set of fire control policies aimed at monitoring and ameliorating fire hazard in the Amazon region. These policies were developed in the aftermath of large-scale fire events and reflect a conservationist discourse that responded to internal as well as international environmental concerns. In doing so, the policies have framed the “fire problem” around those who use fire in their land use practices, in particular small-scale agriculturalists. Yet, land policy in general has repeatedly failed to address the institutional arrangements which compel small-scale farmers to use fire in their agricultural practices and the underlying development processes that have made the landscape more vulnerable to accidental spread of fire. Using regional level data on small-scale farmers, I suggest that the conservation oriented approach of fire policy may not be enough to curtail accidental fire events and instead that the fire issue needs to be positioned within rural development as well.     

基于Shannon多样性t检验法的土地利用景观分区研究*——以重庆市永川区为例

［目的］根据区域景观差异性进行土地利用景观分区,以期为土地利用分区和土地利用政策制定提供理论依据。［方法］文章以重庆市永川区为研究对象,以2005年和2015年的遥感影像为基础数据源,借助RS和GIS技术对2期的影像进行解译,得到永川区2期土地利用类型图; 利用景观指数法与Shannon 多样性t值检验法进行全区土地利用景观格局变化的数量结构和各乡镇土地利用景观变化显著性分区研究。［结果］（1）从类别层级分析, 2005—2015年间,建设用地、林地表现为增加趋势,耕地、草地、未利用地表现为减小趋势。耕地为永川区的优势景观类型（2005年和2015年各占土地总面积5446%、4976%）,耕地、建设用地、林地受人为干扰强烈且趋于规则化。（2）从景观层级分析,蔓延度指数增大,Shannon多样性指数、Shannon均匀度指数、散布与并列指数、景观形状指数均减小。（3）利用Shannon多样性t检验法对永川区进行土地利用景观格局分区。景观变化极显著区,主要位于主城区及其周围地区,城市化现象显著,人为活动影响大; 景观变化显著区,该区土地利用程度较弱, 2005—2015年林地和水域面积增大,耕地面积减小; 景观变化不明显区,该区主要分布在远离中心城区,经济欠发达,景观格局变化不明显,人为活动干扰不明显。［结论］永川区各乡镇的土地利用景观格局变化差异性,表明在自然因素稳定的条件下,今后应因地制宜地加强人为因素的调控,保证各乡镇土地利用景观格局稳定协调发展。     

The evaluation of forest crop damages due to climate change. An application of Dempster–Shafer method

In order to assess damage risk caused by climate change in forest areas, Dempster–Shafer theory of evidence and fuzzy measures were applied to develop a framework for the estimation of economic forest damage. According to the definition of risk supported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a function of hazard and resilience lines of evidence was defined. The results of the hazard and resilience assessment were used to develop an economic framework based on Faustmann studies. The evaluation model, implemented through a spatial analysis procedure, was carried out linking Faustmann formula with hazard and resilience raster maps. The model permitted to estimate in monetary terms two possible costs to be supported: the first one is expressed as the expected damage to the forest crop on the basis of the current obtainable woody assortments and the second one referred to the potential expenses to pay in order to mitigate the risk. Finally, the framework was tested on an area of central Italy (Tuscany region).     

The use of landslide hazard maps to determine mitigation priorities in a dam reservoir and its protection area

Despite longstanding research on the landslide hazard assessment and mapping, the use this information in regional planning applications remains largely unclear. There is still a need for novel methods to interpret the results of hazard analyses. In this respect, the main research question of this study is how the landslide hazard maps can be evaluated in planning practice. To evaluate this issue, a comprehensive case study was carried out and a new methodology, defining the order of priority for the locations where mitigation measures are applied was developed. The investigations were carried out in the Melen Dam reservoir, which provides potable water to the city of Istanbul, and the dam protection area (Duzce, Turkey) in four main stages: (i) Evaluation of the general characteristics of the study area, (ii) preparation of landslide inventory, (iii) development of landslide hazard model, and (iv) implementation of the results of hazard analyses in planning. As a consequence, a decision support system that can evaluate analytically complicated outputs “P_Combined”, “P_{AL min.}”, and “L_Total” and provide clear decisions “Urgent”, “Primary”, and “Secondary” was suggested. Considering the limited resources available for the mitigation measures, the determination of mitigation priorities for the micro-catchments constitutes the key land-use policy for the protection of the dam reservoir.     

关中汉唐帝陵区土地利用景观格局演变研究

为揭示关中汉唐帝陵区土地利用景观格局演变规律,以2005年、2010年、2016年三期遥感影像为基础,选取斑块个数、平均斑块面积、斑块密度、斑块形状指数和分离度指数5个指标,对研究区类型水平上的景观格局变化的特点进行动态分析;选取多样性指数、优势度指数、均匀度指数和破碎度指数4个指标,对研究区景观总体水平的演变特点进行动态分析。结果显示:2005—2010年,人类对汉唐帝陵区土地利用干预程度不断加剧,耕地斑块密度增加一倍,林地斑块密度增加两倍多,导致景观破碎度显著增加,富平县和蒲城县斑块数量增加是2005—2010年关中汉唐帝陵区斑块数量增加的主要原因。2010—2016年,人类对土地利用保护程度不断增强,林地的斑块密度是2010年的三分之一,导致景观破碎度减少。富平县和蒲城县斑块数量减少也是导致2010—2016年关中汉唐帝陵区斑块数量减少的主要原因。2005—2016年,所有土地类型的平均斑块面积都有变小的趋势,斑块密度都有变大的趋势,景观多样性指数呈现不断增加的趋势,除园地外,其余类型斑块分离度在变大,说明斑块之间的距离在增大,趋于分散布局。研究结果可为汉唐帝陵区资源保护与可持续利用提供理论指导。     

退耕还林过程中旱地—林地景观梯度时空变化分析以西北旱区陕西耀州为例

[目的]研究掌握退耕还林政策实施过程中的土地动态变化程度和景观梯度空间分布,促进区域土地政策优化调整,实现土地资源可持续和集约化利用。[方法]文章以西北旱区关中平原典型县域陕西耀州为研究区域,采用土地利用动态度模型、土地利用扩展程度综合指数和土地景观梯度模型,充分利用土地景观空间信息,研究分析2000—2015年陕西耀州主要地类旱地、林地动态变化程度和景观梯度空间信息。[结果]退耕还林政策实施效果明显。该政策直接影响研究区域旱地和林地的数量和空间分布,林地和旱地在2000—2008年间的动态变化程度较2008—2015年均表现更为剧烈,2000—2015年间旱地景观梯度空间分布为西北向东南方向递增和聚集,即东南区域以旱地景观聚集区为主,林地景观梯度空间分布为南部向北部方向递增和聚集,即中部和北部以林地景观聚集区为主,旱地退化过程也是向东南方向逐渐推进,旱地和林地景观经历了2000—2008年急速变化期和2008—2015年持续稳定期两个阶段。[结论]提出的分析方法能快速、客观反映研究区域旱地和林地的动态变化程度和景观变化空间信息,为土地政策调控和优化土地利用结构提供科学的参考依据。