Poverty analysis in the lowlands of Papua New Guinea underscores climate vulnerability and need for income flexibility*

A severe El Niño event in 2015/16 decimated an important share of Papua New Guinea's (PNG) local crop production, leaving 10 per cent of the population with significant food shortages. Lack of recent socio‐economic data and analysis of the country's rural population impeded efforts to plan and mitigate the ensuing food crisis. This paper presents the most recent poverty analysis in Papua New Guinea in nearly a decade, and a renewed effort to inform rural production, consumption and livelihood patterns in some of the country's most remote, lowland areas. We designed a rural household survey that collected detailed consumption and expenditure data to explore poverty prevalence and correlates of per capita household expenditure. Results suggest that approximately half of the sampled individuals live in households with total per capita expenditures below the poverty line. Climate shocks have significant and possibly long‐term consequences for household welfare. Households that experienced a drought in the last 5 years are associated with significantly lower per capita expenditures. Labour diversification, via migration, is associated with greater welfare. Households with at least one migrant member are associated with 13 per cent greater per capita expenditure.     

Rational But Poor? An Explanation for Rural Economic Livelihood Strategy

Using panel data for six rural sub‐Saharan Africa countries, this article tests two hypotheses: (i) household‐specific staple food price bands resulting from market failures in the presence of liquidity constraints and rainfed agriculture induces rural household specialisation in food crops as an economic livelihood strategy; (ii) specialisation in food crops yields inferior welfare than diversification, and keeps households trapped in poverty. The results lend strong support to both hypotheses, reinforcing the need for public investment in rural infrastructure in order to encourage household livelihood diversification for improved welfare.     

农村 “三权”抵押贷款融资对农户生计策略的影响基于重庆城乡统筹试验区5区县562户调查数据

目的 农村“三权”抵押贷款融资会改变农户生计资本的储量和组合形式,从而使得农户的生计策略发生变化,进而影响其生计结果。研究农村“三权”抵押贷款融资对农户生计策略的影响,为政府更好地精准扶贫,完善农村金融创新制度提供实证依据,具有必要性和现实意义。方法 文章以重庆城乡统筹试验区5个县（市、区）562户农户问卷为样本数据,通过建立Probit回归模型来分析农村“三权”抵押贷款融资对农户生计策略的影响。结果 农村“三权”抵押贷款融资政策实施后,研究区农户务农的比例下降,当地打工的比例有所上升,外出打工和个体经营成为他们的主要生计策略;参与农村“三权”抵押贷款融资的农户进行务农和外出打工的概率显著低于没有参与的农户;参与农村“三权”抵押贷款融资农户进行当地打工和个体经营的概率显著高于没有参与的农户。结论 当地政府在继续推广农村“三权”抵押贷款融资的同时,应帮助农户了解和认知参与农村“三权”抵押贷款融资的相关政策,提高农户“三权”抵押贷款融资的参与度,并且对“三权”抵押贷款机制进行拓展,使其能够用于更多的产业发展,为农户提供更多的当地就业机会;同时,当地政府应加强致力于教育发展和大力度营造良好的外部基础设施环境,并利用当地区域产业优势资源合理引导农户寻求适合自身情况的生计发展模式,实现农户脱贫致富及其生计可持续发展。     

西藏贫困的脆弱性和多维性*——以昌都、日喀则为例

［目的］贫困是伴随人类发展社会进程所出现的世界性问题,农村贫困更是困扰发展中国家社会经济发展的难题。定量评估农村贫困的多维性和脆弱性特征,不仅有助于理解贫困本身的复杂性,而且能为制定针对性的扶贫对策提供有力支持。［方法］以西藏典型贫困区昌都和日喀则为例,采用入户调查方法获取一手研究数据,对贫困户多维性和脆弱性进行定量测度和评价。［结果］研究区贫困类型可以划分为人力资本缺乏型、基础设施缺乏型、金融资本—基础设施兼缺型、人力资本—基础设施兼缺型、金融资本—人力资本兼缺型、金融资本—人力资本—基础设施缺乏型、生计途径缺乏型; 研究样本脆弱性指数最大值为097,最小值为-023,平均值为036,不同家庭结构和生计策略下贫困的影响因素差异较大,不同家庭结构下影响贫困脆弱性的最显著因素是家庭收支和贷款,不同生计策略下影响贫困脆弱性的最显著因素是生计多样性、抚养比、受教育程度和家庭收支; 样本户由单一维度引起的贫困现象较少,主要是由多种因素共同引起的多维贫困,生计策略以多样型生计策略为主。［结论］研究结论对理解西藏典型农村地区的贫困特征及其精准脱贫实践具有参考价值。     

家庭禀赋对山区农户林业相关生计策略的影响研究

基于浙江省山区315户农户的调查数据,描述了山区农户的生计策略、不同类型农户的家庭禀赋、收入水平及来源,运用mlogit模型就家庭禀赋对山区农户林业相关生计策略的影响进行实证分析。结果表明:家庭禀赋对山区农户林业相关生计策略具有显著影响;在人力资本指标中,劳动力人数、劳动力平均健康程度对农户选择林业专业化型、林业补充型、生计多样化型生计策略具有一定的正向影响;劳动力平均受教育程度对选择林业补充型生计策略有显著的正向影响;在自然资本指标中,林地面积对农户选择林业专业化型生计策略具有正向影响;耕地面积则对于林业补充型生计策略的选择具有正向影响;在社会资本指标中,家族能人数量对于农户选择林业专业化型、林业补充型、生计多样化型具有显著的正向影响。因此,提出促进非农就业,鼓励自主创业;充分利用自然资本;加强山区农户的人力资本建设等建议。     

可持续生计视角下易地搬迁精准扶贫效果评价

易地搬迁是我国实施精准扶贫政策的重要手段之一。以湖北省十堰市龙韵村115户搬迁农户为研究对象,对其搬迁前后的生计资本、生计策略以及生计结果分别进行对比,分析政策实施对搬迁农户生计的改善情况,并通过移民农户对扶贫搬迁政策的满意度评价扶贫效果。结果表明:(1)易地扶贫搬迁促进了移民生计资本的增加,改变了农户生计策略,优化了贫困户整体生计结果,精准扶贫效果显著;(2)农户对易地搬迁扶贫政策效果的整体满意度较高,均值为3.71,提升了贫困户的获得感及幸福感;(3)易地搬迁可持续减贫仍存在一定的制约因素,需要防范返贫风险。     

Policies for sustainable development in the hillside areas of Honduras: a quantitative livelihoods approach

In this article, we use data for 376 households, 1,066 parcels, and 2,143 plots located in 95 villages in the hillside areas in Honduras to generate information needed by decision makers to assess the needs and opportunities for public investments, and design policies that stimulate natural resource conservation. We develop a quantitative livelihood approach, using factor and cluster analysis to group households based on the use of their main assets. This resulted in seven household categories that pursue similar livelihood strategies. We use a multinomial logit model to show that livelihood strategies are determined by comparative advantages as reflected by a combination of biophysical and socioeconomic variables. While 92% of the rural hillsides population in Honduras lives on US$1.00/capita/day or less, households that follow a livelihood strategy based on basic grain farming are the poorest because they often live in isolated areas with relatively poor agro‐ecological and socioeconomic conditions. Opportunities for off‐farm work tend to be limited in these areas and household strategies that combine on‐farm work with off‐farm work earn higher incomes. Per capita incomes can be increased by improving road infrastructure, widening access to land, policies that reduce household size and dependency ratios, and adoption of sustainable land management technologies that restore soil fertility. We used probit models to show that the latter can be promoted by agricultural extension programs and land redistribution. Investments in physical assets should be directed toward households that pursue livelihood strategies based on off‐farm employment or coffee production, while agricultural training programs are best focused on livestock producers.     

分布式认知理论下易地扶贫搬迁户宅基地复垦意愿研究——基于广西的实证

[目的]分析易地扶贫搬迁户宅基地的复垦意愿及其影响因素,对于优化土地资源配置、完善易地扶贫搬迁后续扶持政策、保障农村社会长治久安,乃至巩固拓展脱贫攻坚成果等,均具有重要意义。[方法]文章基于分布式认知理论,利用广西8市522份易地扶贫搬迁户的问卷数据,运用Logistic模型并综合田野调查,分析易地扶贫搬迁户宅基地利用现状及复垦意愿。[结果]（1）搬迁户宅基地以一户一宅为主,宅基地房屋具备占地面积大、建设成本低、建成年份早的特征;（2）搬迁户宅基地复垦率有待进一步提高,7.66%的宅基地房屋处于闲置状态,37.13%处于偶尔或照常使用状态;（3）搬迁户宅基地复垦意愿整体偏低,仅29.4%表示愿意复垦;（4）男性、宅基地面积大、未流转承包地、希望以后回农村养老的搬迁户其宅基地复垦意愿较低,而高收入、非农就业的搬迁户则意愿较高;（5）宅基地对于男性和希望以后回农村养老的搬迁户而言,承载着浓厚的精神寄托,对于未流转承包地和务农的搬迁户而言,仍发挥着生产生活功能。另外,宅基地面积越大,其建设成本也越高。[结论]在安置社区软硬件设施均较为完善的现实条件下,影响搬迁户宅基地复垦意愿的深层次因素为乡...     

Quantifying rural livelihood strategies in developing countries using an activity choice approach

This article uses a quantitative activity choice approach, based on identification of activity variables and application of latent class cluster analysis, to identify five major rural livelihood strategies pursued by households (n= 576) in Bolivia, Nepal, and Mozambique. Income sources and welfare outcomes are compared across strategies and household differences in asset holdings are analyzed using multinomial logit regression. Findings reveal that income diversification is the norm, that a higher degree of specialization does not characterize more remunerative livelihood strategies, that nonfarm income significantly contributes to higher income earnings, that environmental reliance does not vary across strategies, and that small‐scale farmers are the largest and poorest livelihood group. Some livelihood strategies are superior to all other strategies in terms of income earned; access to more remunerative livelihood strategies is determined by land ownership, education, and ethnic affiliation. Finally, the article also highlights that additional work is required to determine the most suitable methods for livelihood strategy identification.     

多维视阈下土地流转的减贫效应及其异质性研究——基于CFPS2018微观数据分析

目的 土地流转是深化农村土地制度改革的重要探索,是解决农村贫困问题的重要路径,以土地流转为抓手对进一步实施乡村振兴战略具有重要意义。方法 文章基于2018年4 445份中国家庭追踪调查（CFPS）数据,从收入和贫困脆弱性两个维度入手,构建可行广义最小二乘法（FGLS）模型并运用倾向得分匹配（PSM）法分析土地流转的减贫效应及其异质性。结果 （1）在收入维度下,土地流转户的家庭收入水平相比未流转户高12.07%,其中受教育程度、家庭规模和工资水平的差异是影响农户家庭收入增加的关键因素;（2）在贫困脆弱性维度下,土地流转户的贫困脆弱性比未流转户低5.13%,西部地区贫困脆弱性水平为0.419远高于中部和东部地区;（3）从土地流转方式来看,土地转出户的贫困脆弱性比土地转入户显著低0.018,通过PSM解决内生性问题后结果依然稳健。结论 加快健全土地经营权流转机制,根据不同地区、不同农户的土地流转特征出台针对性的相关政策,强化新型农业经营主体的带动作用,完善农村社会化服务体系。     

Adaptive choice of livelihood patterns in rural households in a farm-pastoral zone: A case study in Jungar,Inner Mongolia

From a dynamic process perspective, this study examined households’ adaptive choice of livelihood patterns in the context of changing rural China based on a 12-year continuous household survey in Jungar Banner. By referring to households’ diversified income and vocation, we classified rural livelihood patterns into planting oriented, stockbreeding oriented, half labour and half peasant, non-agriculture oriented, and labour-losing. Results show that different livelihood patterns exhibit distinctive disparities and geographical regularities. Stockbreeding oriented and non-agriculture oriented livelihood patterns are relatively more lucrative. The former was traditionally widely adopted by rural households and the latter has become the most popular in recent years, while the other three patterns are emerging or transitional ones. Then we explored the internal mechanisms of households’ livelihood choices using a multinomial logit model. Results indicate that human capital and physical capital were key factors affecting the differentiation of livelihood patterns, and natural capital was the premise for livelihood pattern transformation. Based on a series of policy interventions, the overall trends in livelihood transitions revealed that the proportion of stockbreeding oriented households and half labour and half peasant households sharply decreased, while the proportion of non-agriculture oriented households and labour-losing households largely increased, and the proportion of planting oriented households increased slightly with their management style transforming from extensive to intensive and specialized. Therefore, government interventions must conform to the transition trends and be tailored to fit different livelihood patterns by adjusting and enforcing each type of capital.     

Asset‐based poverty transition and persistence in rural China

This article tests empirically for transition and persistence of poverty in rural China based on the theory of asset‐based poverty traps. It proposes an analytical framework mitigating the problem of endogenous switching between accumulation regimes and disentangling the true state‐dependence of poverty. Specifically, a dynamic asset threshold separating households into downward and upward mobility regimes is identified after taking households’ unobserved characteristics and observed regime‐differentiated accumulation strategies into account. The static analysis identifies causality running from settling into a downward mobility regime to the probability of poverty measured by consumption. Furthermore, allowing for endogenous initial poverty status, the dynamic analysis finds strong true state‐dependence in poverty. Households with the same characteristics are nearly twice as likely to be poor as if they had not previously switched to the accumulation regime. Assets below the dynamic threshold serve as a conduit through which poverty propagates itself. Factors that help to break this vicious circle are identified.     

Specialization or diversification? The situation and transition of households’ livelihood in agricultural heritage systems

Zhagana Agriculture-Forest-Animal Husbandry Composite System (ZCS) is the first Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems site in the Tibetan Plateau. Similar to many traditional agricultural regions, with the development of tourism and leisure agriculture, the peasant households in ZCS have gradually changed their livelihood strategies and livelihood activities in the past 10 years, resulting in the disappearance of some traditional farming methods and agricultural landscapes with a long history. By taking livelihood assets as the entry point and livelihood strategies as the core, this paper analyzed the basic situation of households’ livelihood and the transition mechanism of different livelihood strategies in order to offer suggestions for the dynamic conservation and sustainable development of Agricultural Heritage Systems (AHS). (1) The livelihood strategies of peasant households in ZCS can be divided into two major categories: specialized strategies and diversified strategies. (2) According to the empirical calculation of the livelihood asset accounting framework of AHS, the average livelihood asset value of peasant households in ZCS is 2.040, showing that the situation of peasant households’ livelihood is inadequate. (3) The transition of peasant households’ livelihood strategies from traditional strategy to specialized or diversified livelihood strategies is mainly influenced by natural assets, human assets, cultural assets, social assets and informational assets. In order to meet the growing material and spiritual needs of peasant households and achieve the sustainable development of ZCS simultaneously, it is suggested that the agriculture-forestry-animal husbandry-tourism composite strategies shall be taken as the development direction of peasant households’ livelihood strategies.     

The Determinants of Rural Livelihood Diversification in Developing Countries

The diversity of rural livelihoods in low income developing countries is receiving increased attention in discussions about rural poverty reduction. This paper explores just one facet of livelihood diversity, namely the reasons for households to adopt multiple livelihood strategies. The distinction is made between diversification of necessity and diversification by choice. Six determinants of diversification are considered in the light of that distinction, and these are seasonality, risk, labour markets, credit markets, asset strategies, and coping strategies. The paper concludes that under the precarious conditions that characterise rural survival in many low income countries, diversification has positive attributes for livelihood security that outweigh negative connotations it may possess. Policy should facilitate rather than inhibit diversity. Diverse rural livelihoods are less vulnerable than undiversified ones.     

Identifying livelihood strategies and transitions in rural China: Is land holding an obstacle?

Using nationally representative rural survey data from 2010 and 2014 in China, this paper quantitatively investigates the factors determining Chinese rural households’ livelihood strategies and dynamics in transitions. Using a multinomial probit regression and ordered logit regression (OLR), we find that human assets and transport facilities are the most important factors in improving the livelihood strategies of rural Chinese households. These factors also encourage upward livelihood mobility. However, factors such as land endowment, land renting-in, and land expropriation have a negative effect on rural Chinese households’ upward mobility in livelihood strategies.     

Analysis of the potential socio-economic impact of establishing plantation forestry on rural communities in Sanga district,Niassa province,Mozambique

This study assesses the livelihoods of rural households in a proposed green field forestry area located in Sanga district of Niassa province, Mozambique. The livelihood analysis was used to analyze potential socio-economic impacts of introducing forest plantations to rural households located within the proposed afforestation area. The study made use of household interviews, key informant interviews and secondary data. The sustainable livelihoods framework was used in the research process to develop the household questionnaire and to identify livelihood strategies. Data were analyzed using 331 household questionnaires collected throughout the proposed afforestation area in various communities in the study area. Findings from the study indicated that there is minimal wealth gaps between rural households; but that the introduction of the forestry industry and the subsequent employment created thereof may result in larger wealth gaps between wage earning and non-wage earning households. The study further concludes by linking the potential socio-economic impacts with mitigation recommendations that could be harmonized with FSC Standard requirements for forestry companies interested in developing a forest industry in the study area.     

风险冲击对农村居民家庭相对贫困的影响——基于CFPS数据的实证分析

目的 试图从微观农户层面研究风险冲击对相对贫困的影响及作用路径,以期为增强农村居民家庭风险抵御能力、缓解相对贫困提供实证支撑。方法 文章基于中国家庭动态追踪调查（CFPS）数据,运用面板probit模型和固定效应模型实证分析风险冲击对农村居民家庭相对贫困的影响,用异质性分析和面板门槛回归模型探讨不同收入水平的农村居民家庭风险应对方式差异。结果 （1）风险冲击会增加农村居民家庭相对贫困的可能。其中,灾害冲击是导致农村居民家庭相对贫困的首要原因,其次是教育冲击和婚丧嫁娶、孩子出生等重大事件冲击,失业冲击和健康冲击的影响相对较小。（2）不同收入水平农村居民家庭的风险应对机制差异是导致相对贫困家庭无法摆脱相对贫困的重要原因。与高收入的农村居民家庭相比,低收入的农村居民家庭遭受风险冲击时会减少更多的农业生产投资,增加更少的人力资本投资,导致家庭现有的资源配置无法提升家庭未来的收入能力,使其囿于相对贫困无法脱离。结论 政府应构建更具韧性的国家治理体系、更具弹性的社会帮扶体系,在此基础上提高农村居民家庭的可持续生计能力,从而减少农村居民家庭陷入相对贫困的可能。     

农户参与湿地保护对家庭减贫的影响及作用机制——基于自然保护区问卷调查的实证研究

[目的]试图从微观层面农户参与视角分析保护区建立对多维贫困的影响,以期为我国类似地区改进扶贫政策、创新农户生计策略选择提供实证支撑。[方法]文章以云南省大山包黑颈鹤自然保护区为例,基于2019年收集的364份有效问卷,构建“农户参与—生计策略—家庭贫困”的理论分析框架,采用二项Logit模型和中介效应模型分析了农户参与湿地保护对减贫的影响及作用机制。[结果]（1）受访农户贫困发生率超过75%,非参与农户贫困发生率比参与农户高约29%。（2）收入偏低、脆弱性大,信息闭塞,难以获得金融支持是关键致贫因素。（3）农户参与湿地保护显著利于多维减贫,并对收入、生活质量、就业及发展单维度减贫具有显著影响。（4）生计策略多样化和非农化对减贫具有显著中介效应,占总效应的比例分别为24.48%和17.26%。[结论]建议提供多样化生计模式,对参与和非参与农户精准施策,完善保障机制,提高生计能力。     

我国深度贫困地区的减贫成就与挑战以新疆X县为例

[目的]深度贫困地区是我国"脱贫攻坚"的硬骨头,但是鲜有研究对该地区的精准扶贫成效及未来挑战开展定量分析。[方法]文章以新疆典型县域(X县)为例,描述分析了该县贫困发生率,贫困家庭的收入、住房和饮水情况,脱贫方式,特殊群体的贫困特征以及致贫原因随时间的变化趋势。[结果]基于2013—2018年建档立卡贫困户信息,该县农村贫困发生率从2013年的37.2%下降到2018年的0.2%;贫困户人均收入从2 431元提高到11 281元;贫困农户的住房、饮水和医保等问题大多能在2年之内解决;大量青壮年和高学历人群依赖"政策脱贫";因病和因残致贫、老年贫困问题和因学致贫具有一定的普遍性。[结论]不返贫是可持续扶贫的最终目标。首先,逐步改善"财政兜底、一兜了之"的帮扶方式;其次,加强对特殊人群(例如,老年人口、高抚养比家庭等)的识别和帮扶力度;再次,消除因学致贫的可能性,同时为适龄劳动力提供有效的技能培训。     

Impacts of protected areas on local livelihoods: Evidence of giant panda biosphere reserves in Sichuan Province,China

Given the debates about whether Protected Areas (PAs) exacerbate local poverty or might contribute to poverty alleviation, there is a critical need for evidence to examine the impacts. In this study, we have conducted a household investigation of 560 rural households in 7 PAs of Sichuan province of China. We used matching method to value impacts of PAs on local livelihoods. The results showed that compared to the Average Treatment Effect, the results of traditional regression model exaggerate the negative impacts of the PAs. However, we should notice that the overall impact of PAs on local household wealth was still negative. Households inside the PAs had more Non-timber Forest Products gathering income and compensation, but fewer crop production income and forestry income. Better conservation policies need to be initiated to realize the harmonious and concurrent development of ecological objectives and livelihood objectives.