Hybrid knowledge for understanding complex agri-environmental issues: nitrate pollution in Italy

Although agri-environmental policies have been launched by the European Union to mitigate environmental pollution and sustain agricultural development, there is not much understanding of how to manage the asymmetries between the objectives and the effectiveness of the implementation of the policies on local scale. The nitrate directive (ND) is an emblematic case in this context. This research focused on the role of ‘hybrid knowledge’ (scientific and local) and the process of knowledge integration in understanding the nitrate problem as an agri-environmental issue emerging from a complex set of biophysical and social factors. We conducted an integrated analysis of a case study on nitrate pollution in an intensive dairy district under Mediterranean conditions. A participatory action research approach was applied to elicit stakeholders’ knowledge and perspectives and to create new learning spaces among farmers, researchers and policy makers at case study scale. We explored the effectiveness of social learning triggered due to participatory field experiments, by bringing together stakeholders to generate new ‘hybrid knowledge’ for agri-environmental sustainability. The dramatic shift from the initial defensive position of farmers to an agreement on concerted actions proved that the integration between local and scientific knowledge may contribute to an increase in the effectiveness of the ND.     

The importance of the institutional environment on multifunctional farming systems in the peri-urban area of Brussels

The influence of local and regional policies on the uptake of multifunctional farming systems is analysed. The conceptual framework of how regional and local policies can influence farmers’ behaviour is empirically verified by analysing data on uptake of diversification and environmental management by farmers located in the Brussels’ peri-urban area. In a two-stage model, farmers’ participation and behaviour to influence local policy-makers is also examined. It has been found among other things that, in a municipality that attaches greater importance to environmental issues, the uptake of agri-environmental measures is higher and that promotion of local agriculture will encourage farmers to start processing or selling products on their farms.     

Does social capital matter in climate change adaptation? A lesson from agricultural sector in Yogyakarta,Indonesia

Climate change increases the vulnerability of agricultural sector due to the increasing threat from pest attacks. Mitigation of a threat that results from climate change requires adaptation strategies. This study investigates farmers’ willingness to participate in the process of climate change adaptation in Yogyakarta, Indonesia; particularly in facing the increasing risk of pest attacks. Using a logistic regression model, we tested the impacts of social capital on farmers’ willingness to participate. The results showed that 70% of farmers were willing to contribute financially to the adaptation process. This participation was positively correlated with high social capital, which consists of high level of trust, community engagement, and personal relations with people in other villages. This study contributes to the literature by highlighting the potential roles of social capital in the process of climate change adaptation in agricultural sector.     

Environmental grants and regulations in strategic farm business decision-making: A case study of attitudinal behaviour in Scotland

This paper addresses the question of farmer responses to agri-environmental programming in light of the Single Farm Payment, focusing on the role of environmental regulations and grant schemes in strategic farm decision-making. Utilising Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour in a qualitative case study of farmers in Upper Deeside, Scotland, it was found that farmer respondents actively consider environmental regulations and grant opportunities as part of their decision rationale in making investments in farm development, such as agro-industrial building construction or securing additional land. Fulfilling agri-environmental regulations is constructed by respondents as being part of ensuring farm viability, while eligibility for agri-environmental schemes is impacting on how tenanted land is valued. The author identifies three mechanisms facilitating farmer up-take of environmental schemes, and makes a case for consideration of farmers as experts in producing environmental outcomes while maintaining economic sustainability of farming operations.     

European agri-environmental policy for the 21st century

The present paper reviews the development of agri-environmental policy in Europe and assesses its prospects. While it does so from a predominantly UK perspective, there are many common features of the experience and policy choices across the majority of Member States. The first generation of agri-environmental measures applied command-and-control regulation for the prevention of pollution. Second-generation measures pay farmers for providing environmental public goods. The emphasis on 'amenity' derived from the maintenance of agricultural production systems contrasts with policy approaches in Australia and the USA. Well-designed incentive schemes constitute 'quasi-markets' for public goods, correcting for a pre-existing market failure. Problems in the delivery of policy include poor spatial targeting and a lack of clarity between environmental and income support objectives. Various changes will be required in order to increase the environmental effectiveness and efficiency of agri-environmental mechanisms.     

Landscape services as boundary concept in landscape governance: Building social capital in collaboration and adapting the landscape

The landscape services concept provides a lens to study relations within the social-ecological networks that landscapes are, and to identify stakeholders as either providers or beneficiaries. However, landscape services can also be used as a boundary concept in collaborative landscape governance. We demonstrate this by analysing the case of Gouwe Wiericke in the rural west of the Netherlands. Here, a collaborative landscape governance process started off with low levels of trust between farmers and regional governments, as a result of previous processes. The introduction of the landscape services concept helped to bridge social boundaries, which eventually resulted in collective action: farmers and governments reached an agreement on adapted management of ditches and shores to improve water quality and biodiversity. However, we propose that bridging the social boundaries was achieved not merely due to the landscape services concept, but also due to the fact that multiple boundaries were managed simultaneously, and additional arrangements were used in boundary management.     

Sustainable agricultural practices,environmental risk mitigation and livelihood improvements: Empirical evidence from Northern Ethiopia

Using sustainable agriculture practices has various economic, social and environmental benefits. Determining the attitude of farmers toward risk is an important first step in understanding their behaviour and coping strategies to mitigate environmental risks. This paper investigates the dual impacts of some agricultural practices on agricultural yields and farmers’ livelihoods considering sustainable farmland. Cross-sectional data is collected from farmers in six rural villages in Tigray region, Northern Ethiopia using structured questionnaires. Results show that education, labour supply, agricultural extension services, attitudes, social capital, risk mitigation attitudes, farming experience and soil conditions are factors that significantly affect farmers’ decisions to adopt these practices. The practices are adopted either in isolation or jointly of integrated sustainable practices that increase crop production, household income and asset. Therefore, government and other development actors should promote their adoptions especially in drought-prone, degraded and water-stressed areas     

Social capital for rural revitalization in China: A critical evaluation on the government’s new countryside programme in Chengdu

In the context of urbanisation and decline of its countryside in the 21^st century, the Chinese government has initiated a campaign namely “building a socialist new countryside” in 2006 which is now renamed as “rural revitalisation”. Bringing together social capital, government intervention and other capital, we argue that rural revitalisation can be viewed as a process of the interaction between land transfer and community building leading to multiple gains of all stakeholders. Given the predomination of top-down government intervention and external capital investment in its campaign, this paper sheds new light on social capital in terms of not only mobilising community members’ participation, but also reaching a balance with interests of government and other stakeholders. The importance of social capital can be illustrated from critical evaluation on governmental pilot projects in the suburban zone of Chengdu, a model municipal in China in urban-rural integration. In particular, this paper aims to address the following questions: How does social capital engage and contribute to rural restructuring for sustainable rural livelihoods? What role can social capital play in the decision making of land transfer and community building? This paper contributes to rural revitalisation and land use debates in three aspects. Firstly, we post a triangular model by bringing together government intervention, social and other capital to emphasize the interwoven nature of the relationship between land transfer and community building for better understanding of the intrinsic dynamics within the communities and their interests interfaced with external stakeholders. Secondly, with respect to the impact of land transfer on sustainable livelihoods, we propose an evaluation framework to account and compare the roles of social capital against government intervention and other conditions in land transfer decision making. Thirdly, applying the above framework to sample villages, we identify three types of rural restructuring: government-led, farmer self-organising, and returned entrepreneur-oriented. Policy implications and further research direction are discussed.     

Fostering cooperation between farmers and public and private actors to expand environmentally friendly rice cultivation: intermediary functions and farmers’ perspectives

This study investigates the intermediary functions and the farmers’ perspectives in the development and implementation of agri-environmental schemes in Shiga Prefecture of Japan by employing the innovation journey analysis and the statistical analysis. The innovation journey analysis demonstrates that the prefectural government served as an ‘innovation intermediary’ to: (1) provide a clear vision of sustainable agriculture for farmers and other actors, (2) create and reinforce both technological and market niches and (3) develop actor networks involving local actors. It also identifies the following roles of the Japan Agricultural Cooperatives (JAs) and the specialist wholesaler as innovation intermediaries to: (1) develop new farming materials such as fertilizers, (2) translate and deliver practical farming knowledge for farmers and (3) establish the market of environmental-friendly rice. Statistical analysis uncovers that farmers more appreciated the supports from the JAs than those from other intermediaries to participate in the schemes. Complemented by the innovation journey analysis, our findings suggest that the keys to increasing farmers’ participation in the schemes include a clear vision and economic incentives for farmers as well as the coordination among intermediaries who have different expertise.     

Who you know and when you plough? Social capital and agricultural mechanization under the new green revolution in Ghana

This paper examines the role of social capital in smallholder agriculture mechanization in Ghana under the ongoing agenda for transformation of African agriculture through the new green revolution. It contributes to the ongoing debate on the potential of social capital in explaining socioeconomic activity over time and space. Drawing on the experiences of smallholder farmers (n = 30) from Navrongo using qualitative interviews and focus group discussions, the paper explores how social capital networks shape mechanized service access and utilization among farmers and highlights the historical background to tractor-based mechanized farming in northern Ghana. Findings reveal how local farmers activate and operate in trustworthy social networks at the community level among themselves and externally with government agencies, traders and development partners to facilitate tractor access. The paper also finds that the withdrawal of government subsidies on agricultural services during structural adjustment in the 1980s created an avenue for private sector entry into the tractor service market. In recent times, the market is a blend of both public and private actors. Given the crucial role of social capital, this paper stresses that apart from economic factors, contemporary agricultural policy should build upon contextual sociocultural networks and the resources inherent in them.     

林农生计资本对林地利用方式的影响研究

基于陕西省500户农户的调查数据,在可持续生计分析框架基础上,构建林农生计资本指标体系,运用多元Logit模型实证分析了林农生计资本对林地利用方式的影响。研究表明:第一,不同类型的林农生计资本结构差异会影响其对林地利用方式的选择;第二,在林农林地利用方式的选择上,各生计资本要素的影响存在显著差异,其中金融资本要素是改善林农生计的关键。在此基础上,从林农生计资本要素出发,提出了鼓励林地流转、发展规模经营、加快林业社会化服务体系建设等政策建议。     

农户经营性投入的影响因素分析 ———以洛南县核桃种植为例

农户经营性投入的高低反映农户参与农业生产的积极性.该文通过引入社会资本、农户预期、农户技术满意度三个隐性变量,采用陕西省洛南县208个核桃种植户的调查数据,运用WLS对影响农户农业经营性投入的关键因素进行了实证分析.结果表明,户主的性别、农户核桃种植面积、社会资本等若干因素与农户种植核桃的经营性投入呈显著的正相关;而户主年龄、农户对未来市场的预期两个因素与农户的经营性投入呈显著的负相关.并据此提出加强项目区农民培训、培养专业种植户和提高政府、村委会的组织能力等提高农户经营性投入水平的对策建议.     

农户资本禀赋对水稻生产生态效率的影响以湖北省为例

[目的]农户资本禀赋约束对水稻生产生态效率会产生重要的影响。为更全面和准确地分析资本禀赋对水稻生产生态效率的影响。[方法]文章基于长江中游湖北省农户调研数据,利用生命周期评价方法、超效率SBM模型、熵值法、Tobit和OLS回归等多种模型和方法,在理论分析基础上从多个角度就资本禀赋对水稻生产生态效率的影响进行研究。[结果]（1）农户资本禀赋存在较大差异,各类别资本禀赋排序为人力资本（0.37）>社会资本（0.17）>金融资本（0.16）>物质资本（0.14）>自然资本（0.10）。强资本型的农户比例在综合资本禀赋和分类别资本禀赋上均少于弱资本型的农户比例。（2）单季水稻系统生命周期环境影响综合指数为2.10,水稻生产生态效率为0.64。（3）农户综合资本禀赋提升有利于提升水稻生产生态效率。综合资本禀赋对水稻生产生态效率的提升效应主要得益于物质资本、社会资本和金融资本的正向影响。[结论]从物质资本、社会资本、金融资本等方面加强农户资本禀赋积累,以促进水稻生产方式绿色转型。     

The challenge of legitimizing spatially differentiated regulation: Experiences from the implementation of the Danish Buffer zone act

Differentiating regulation is a promising approach to agri-environmental regulation that may potentially reduce the environmental impact of agriculture at the lowest possible costs for the farmers and society, but also possesses a number of challenges. In this article, we explore the challenges to the legitimacy of agri-environmental regulation that occurs when the regulatory regime changes from general regulation to differentiated regulation. The analysis is based on a case study of the implementation of the Buffer zone act in Denmark – a regulation that prevents agricultural production in a 10 (later 9) meter fringe around selected waterbodies. We distinguish between two different ways of legitimizing: Producing knowledge and participation. We conclude that to harvest some of the obvious benefits of differentiated regulation a number of challenges must be resolved, 1) ensuring legitimacy of differentiated regulation is crucial, 2) differentiated regulation imply that farmers are also differentiated, 3) differentiated regulation implies new uncertainties, 4) the current knowledge regime need to be reconfigured, 5) stakeholders feel that they are unevenly treated and 6) it is difficult to establish a win–win solution for all farmers on an individual level.     

Factors Affecting Farmers’ Participation in Agri‐environmental Measures: A Northern Italian Perspective

Agri‐environmental measures play an important role in Italian rural areas, as shown by the financial commitment to the Rural Development programmes. However, in contrast with other European Union (EU) countries, policy‐makers still have limited experience on how farmers approach environmental incentive schemes. This paper casts new light on this issue from a northern Italian perspective. The rationale of the farmers’ decision‐making process is explored using two multinomial models. The first explains the probability of non‐participation or participation in one of three specific agri‐environmental measures. The model outcomes show that labour‐intensive farming types and high dependency of household income on farming activity constrain farmers’ participation, whereas previous experience, easy‐to‐implement environmentally friendly farm practices and adequate compensation of extra costs encourage participation. The second model explores the effect of farmers’ attitudes and beliefs on their predispositions towards participation in any of the schemes. The results highlight that, besides income factors, the farm's future in the business, and the relationship with neighbouring farmers and their opinions on environmentally friendly practices all have significant effects on adoption of agri‐environmental measures. The paper concludes by suggesting that farmers’ attitudes and beliefs, as well as the local behavioural influences, have to be taken into account when designing and communicating agri‐environmental measures.     

Effects of agri-environment schemes on farm-level eco-efficiency measures: Empirical evidence from EU countries

The European Union (EU) budget allocated to agri-environmental schemes (AES) has increased consistently over the past 20 years. European citizens should expect effective spending of these public funds, so investigation of the effects of these schemes on both environmental benefits and farm efficiency is warranted. We examine the effects of European agri-environmental schemes on farm-level eco-efficiency. Our analysis combines data envelopment analysis and impact assessment methods to evaluate the impact of scheme payments on eco-efficiency measures. Our results suggest that there is considerable scope for eco-efficiency improvements, both for dairy and crop production. Results also show that the average change in eco-efficiency scores does not vary significantly between AES participants and non-participants, which questions the effectiveness of present AES.     

Collaborative governance arrangements to deliver spatially coordinated agri-environmental management

Several studies show that agri-environment schemes (AES) are likely to be more effective if they are designed at the landscape scale. However, this requires spatial coordination of environmental management across multiple farm holdings and collaboration among governmental and other actors, including, possibly, groups of farmers. In this study we analyse alternative approaches to spatial coordination and collaboration. Through case studies from five EU member states in North West Europe we analysed collaborative governance arrangements, from the perspective of the distribution of governance tasks among collaborating actors and changes to these over time. Of these governance tasks, spatial coordination had our particular interest. The collaborative governance arrangements were shaped in various ways. In four out of five case studies a group of farmers had become involved in the performance of more governance tasks over time. In all cases a professional(ized) organisation (governmental organisation or a group of farmers) was responsible for spatial coordination, possibly due to the complexities inherent to a landscape approach. In relation to the change of schemes over time, we argue that adaptive collaborative governance, incorporating learning, monitoring and evaluation in the governance arrangements, is key to effective agri- environmental management.     

Achieving successful farmer engagement on greenhouse gas emission mitigation

This paper explores the potential for farmers’ engagement on the issues related to greenhouse gas (GHG) emission mitigation in extensive low-input livestock farming systems. The framework used was based on Participatory Action Research. This involved integrating quantitative evidence on GHG emission impacts at the farm level and qualitative data on the obstacles to the adoption of innovation based on farmers’ perceptions and attitudes to climate change. The study aims at building social capital among 14 farmers in the South West and West Midlands regions in England, and it evaluates the potential for the adoption of emission mitigation strategies. The Rapid Farm Practices Appraisal (RFPA) tool was created to assess farm practices based on their mitigation potential. Practices were assessed twice over 6–9 months. Semi-structured interviews were used to assess barriers and opportunities to farmer engagement and on-farm innovation. Farmers were invited to a focus group meeting to network with other farmers and engage with researchers. All farmers participated in the 2 farm assessments, but only half the farmers adopted changes in farm management. All farmers appreciated the RFPA tool, the clearness of the information provided and the focus of the tool on practices directly. The main obstacles to innovation were limited financial capital, lack of trust in government action and confusion over the effectiveness of farm advice on mitigation. The lack of long-term flexibility of agricultural policies and the source of information greatly influenced the acceptance of advice. Results suggest the potential for the expansion of the RFPA tool to include economic assessment of farm practices and the engagement of a larger pool of farmers and farming systems. The tool could be used to support the GHG Action Plan and future environmental policies, and as an integrated self-assessment tool for farmers under Environmental Stewardship Schemes.     

SLA框架下生计资本影响山区农户分化的机理与实证研究以广西山区农户为例

目的 基于可持续生计分析（SLA）框架,对生计资本影响山区农户分化进行深入研究,为职业分化背景下促进农户多渠道创收以及实现山区乡村振兴提供参考。方法 文章运用比较分析法、多值选择模型,以广西山区的540家农户为研究对象,探讨农户职业分化的影响因素。结果 研究结果表明,社会资本有助于纯农户与非农农户向以农为主的兼业农户分化;自然资本丰裕更能吸引农户向纯农户或以农为主的兼业分化;增加金融资本有助于兼业农户专注于农业生产,也促使非农经营主体投身于农业经营;物质资本影响农户向纯农户或以非农为主的兼业农户转变;拥有自身务工经历的农民更易于选择以农为主的兼业形态,对农民进行农业技术培训因提升其农业生产经营能力从而有助于他们投身于农业生产;生计资本影响农户分化的程度因距离中心市场的远近而存在差异。结论 生计资本影响农户向不同类型的职业进行分化,应从鼓励农户兼业化实现收入多元化以及鼓励乡村精英返乡创业的视角,适应不同类型农户分化需要,为调整农户生计资本,维持生计可持续性提供必要的决策支持和政策保障。     

A dynamic analysis of cost-share agri-environmental programs

The purpose of this paper is to theoretically examine the efficiency of a cost-share agri-environmental program through a farm life cycle lens. Faced with a growing environmental impact from agricultural production, the farmer must decide when and how aggressively to invest in environmental capital. The steady state of the optimal control problem reveals the trade-off between allocating farm profits to consumption versus environmental improvements. A payment from a cost-share program reduces the time to investment in environmental capital, and also permanently increases the farmer's level of investment. A lack of targeting results in inframarginal farmers being paid more than the minimum amount that is required to induce investment. The portion of both the marginal payment and the average payment that induces new investment declines as the government's share of the payment increases, and this decline decreases overall program efficiency. Despite this inefficiency, a larger payment from a cost-share program is shown to decrease the farm's environmental impact in both the short and long run.