Projected impacts of increased uptake of source control mitigation measures on agricultural diffuse pollution emissions to water and air

A multi-pollutant modelling framework for England and Wales is described. This includes emissions of nitrate, phosphorus and sediment to water and ammonia, methane and nitrous oxide to air, and has been used to characterise baseline (no uptake of on-farm measures) and business-as-usual (BAU) annual pollutant losses, comparing these with the loss under a range of new policies aimed at increasing the uptake of relevant source control measures to 95% across England and Wales. Model outputs, including uncertainty ranges, evaluated using national water and air quality data layers have been summarised at both farm (Robust Farm Type) and water management catchment (WMC) scale. Nationally, across all farm types, the median annual reductions in pollutant losses under the new scenario, relative to BAU in 2010, were predicted to range between 9 and 16% for nitrate, 13–37% for phosphorus, 12–21% for sediment, 2–57% for methane and 10–17% for nitrous oxide. For ammonia, the range was −2–28%, indicating the potential for pollution swapping and an increase in ammonia emissions under scenarios designed to reduce nitrogen flux to waters. Increased uptake of pollution source control measures would result in a wide range of annual total (capital and operational) costs (per farm) for the major farm types, with median estimates ranging from £635 yr⁻¹ (Less Favourable Areas (LFA) with grazing livestock) to £15,492 yr⁻¹ (Cereals) in Nitrate Vulnerable Zone (NVZ) areas, compared with a range of £23 yr⁻¹ to £13,484 yr⁻¹ for the same respective farm types in non-NVZ areas. The estimated median annual load reductions for all WMCs relative to BAU, were predicted to be 16% for nitrate, 20% for phosphorus, 16% for sediment, 16% for ammonia, 15% for methane and 18% for nitrous oxide. These predictions suggest that almost perfect (95% uptake) implementation of source control measures will not deliver substantial improvements in pollutant emissions.     

The importance of the institutional environment on multifunctional farming systems in the peri-urban area of Brussels

The influence of local and regional policies on the uptake of multifunctional farming systems is analysed. The conceptual framework of how regional and local policies can influence farmers’ behaviour is empirically verified by analysing data on uptake of diversification and environmental management by farmers located in the Brussels’ peri-urban area. In a two-stage model, farmers’ participation and behaviour to influence local policy-makers is also examined. It has been found among other things that, in a municipality that attaches greater importance to environmental issues, the uptake of agri-environmental measures is higher and that promotion of local agriculture will encourage farmers to start processing or selling products on their farms.     

A strategic environmental assessment method for agricultural policy in the UK

There are a number of significant environmental impacts that arise from agricultural practices that may be influenced by policy. A Strategic Environmental Assessment Method (SEAM) is described which aims to assess the environmental impacts of agricultural policy and aid the development of more sustainable policy formulation. The method addresses the issues of selecting appropriate performance criteria and measurements, and makes use of effect-damage functions and targets to determine the significance of potential impacts in relation to sustainability. A set of profiles is produced, describing the environmental performance of a specific policy. A confidence assessment system (CAS) is also described which provides details about the quality of the assessment and areas of uncertainty. SEAM provides information about impacts in simple format that can be easily used in decision making. It can identify environmental trade-offs and provides a holistic view that is essential when making decisions that affect the environment.     

The attitudes of recreational user representatives to pollution reduction and the implementation of the European Water Framework Directive

Under the European Water Framework Directive (WFD), all water bodies must be of ‘good ecological status’ by 2015. One of the major beneficiaries of this will be those who use water for sport and recreation activities. It is certainly the case that some waters do contain – at some times – concentrations of pollutants sufficient to be a potential threat to public health but there is little robust evidence that water quality is a major constraint to many water-based activities. This paper addresses the current evidence deficit through a survey of recreational user representatives, exploring the cultural and political influences on decisions about when the quality of water is sufficient for their activity to take place. Using a reading of Bourdieu's ‘feel for the game’, the paper argues that there is a spectrum of involvement, contact and participation that conditions use and, thus, helps to establish an appropriate context for understanding the potential impacts on water-based recreation of the implementation of the WFD.     

Why David sometimes defeats Goliath: The power of actors in disprivileged land-use policy networks

Since the 19th century, Danish policies regarding land use in the wider countryside have been strongly influenced by two competing policy networks. In the period 1866–1970, a strong ‘land reclamation network’ was privileged at the expense of a weak ‘nature protection network’. In contrast, during the last couple of decades, the situation has been turned on its head. Here, a strong nature protection network has been privileged at the expense of a weaker ‘land reclamation network’. In each of the above stable periods, however, a detailed case study of decision-making regarding a rejected project shows that sometimes the weaker network is able to defeat a stronger network in relation to concrete project decisions regarding the use of water bodies. Why is it that even very strong policy communities cannot expect to have all projects they support implemented? Adding the concepts of policy venue and policy image [Baumgartner, F.R., Jones, B.D., 1993. Agendas and Instability in American Politics. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London] to the rather static policy network approach provides an explanation—a theoretical framework which, for example, can be applied to decisions/non-decisions regarding nature restoration projects in those countries who during recent years have been trying to move beyond water body protection to restoration of water bodies to their natural state.     

Land allocation to meet sectoral goals in Indonesia—An analysis of policy coherence

Land is a scarce resource affecting the implementation of many sectoral policies. In Indonesia, the expansion of palm oil plantations has led to non-sustainable land use practices in past years, particularly deforestation. More recently, the government has set ambitious targets for the adoption of biodiesel which will require expansion of oil palm plantations, thus putting further pressure on land. Meanwhile, the need to guarantee food supply, forest conservation and climate change mitigation also imply challenges when it comes to land allocation and use. This paper examines the role that land plays in the implementation of sectoral policies in Indonesia, exploring the availability of land to satisfy the multiple goals defined in national policies. We explore land competition resulting from allocations made in official policy documents starting with biofuel policy. The analysis of policy goals and coherence when it comes to land allocation is made in relation to agriculture, climate and forestry policies. We conclude that adjustments need to be made in the policies to avoid overlappings and misinterpretations when it comes to land allocation. The area made available for meeting each sectoral policy goal when taking into account cross sectoral interactions is: 14.2 Mha for agriculture, 43 Mha for climate mitigation measures, 9.2 Mha for forestry, and 20.9 Mha for biofuels. A more uniform land classification and development of a common reference database will increase transparency on land allocation and use, and help to monitor land use change, ultimately supporting the achievement of multiple national goals.     

Environmental evaluation of agri-environment schemes using participatory approaches: Experiences of testing the Agri-Environmental Footprint Index

The Agri-Environment Footprint Index (AFI) has been developed as a generic methodology to assess changes in the overall environmental impacts from agriculture at the farm level and to assist in the evaluation of European agri-environmental schemes (AES). The methodology is based on multi-criteria analysis (MCA) and involves stakeholder participation to provide a locally customised evaluation based on weighted environmental indicators. The methodology was subjected to a feasibility assessment in a series of case studies across the EU. The AFI approach was able to measure significant differences in environmental status between farms that participated in an AES and non-participants. Wider environmental concerns, beyond the scheme objectives, were also considered in some case studies and the benefits for identification of unintentional (and often beneficial) impacts of AESs are presented. The participatory approach to AES evaluation proved efficient in different environments and administrative contexts. The approach proved to be appropriate for environmental evaluation of complex agri-environment systems and can complement any evaluation conducted under the Common Monitoring and Evaluation Framework. The applicability of the AFI in routine monitoring of AES impacts and in providing feedback to improve policy design is discussed.     

Leisure traveller perceptions of iconic coastal and fjord countryside areas: Lush naturalness or remembrance of agricultural times past?

Several iconic coastal and fjord landscapes in Northern Norway have undergone natural spontaneous regrowth of abandoned agricultural areas and pastureland. At the same time, recent public discourse has assumed that such regrowth may taint tourists’ and outdoor recreationists’ perceptions of rural areas. Consequently, this in situ multilingual study in the archipelago of Vesterålen investigated this assumption. The results revealed that tourists’ and visiting recreationists’ foremost interest was in pristine rural areas that seemed devoid of human presence or activity. At the same time, roughly half of the visitors enjoyed seeing working farms. The enquiry displays preference ambivalence about the combination of “cultural” and “natural” elements of the rural landscape. The investigation also illustrates a disparity between foreign tourists’ desire for lush deciduous vegetation and Norwegian visitors’ fondness for a more open agricultural seaside with grassland and shrubland and just a few scattered trees, as the study area had appeared some decades earlier. Moreover, some implications of land use policy are discussed.     

新疆农业水土资源平衡分析

该文基于新疆水资源及农业用水现状,以目前的灌溉面积为约束条件,深入分析新疆农业水土资源平衡的可能性。以2000~2013年的相关数据资料为基础,采用灰色关联度分析法分别预测了2015年、2020年、2030年新疆有效灌溉面积和灌溉面积,后验差检验(C值)为0.15和0.16,小于标准判断值0.35,表明预测结果很好。结合回归分析的方法,进一步对新疆农业用水需求进行预测,结果显示有效灌溉面积和灌溉面积的用水量均不断提高。在此基础上,模拟了无农业用水总量控制和农业用水总量控制两种情景下水土资源的平衡性,结果发现无农业用水总量控制条件下是不可能实现水土资源平衡的;在农业用水总量控制的条件下,并且灌溉面积控制在3986.25千公顷或有效灌溉面积控制在3667.98千公顷,才可能实现水土资源平衡。为了实现新疆农业水土平衡,分析了三种解决办法,其中发展节水灌溉是当前有效、可行的解决途径。