How cost-effective are result-oriented agri-environmental measures?—An empirical analysis in Germany

Agri-environmental measures (AEM) are the central area-based measures of the second pillar of the Common European Agricultural Policy. Cost-effectiveness of AEMs has to be improved. In this paper a newly designed AEM called result-oriented incentive is empirically analysed for the first time concerning its impacts on environmental effects and cost.     

Five scale challenges in Ecuadorian forest and landscape restoration governance

The forest and landscape restoration (FLR) targets set as part of the Bonn Challenge draw attention to the governance arrangements required to translate national FLR targets into local action. To achieve the targets, actors at multiple levels of the governance scale aim to influence relevant processes on the ecological scale. In this article, we focus on the scale challenges relating to the implementation of Ecuador’s restoration targets, by analysing the implementation of the 2014–2017 National Forest Restoration Plan in the montane Chocó Andino and Bosque Seco landscapes. From 54 semi-structured interviews, a document review, and geographical data analysis, we identified two temporal (i, ii) and three spatial scale challenges (iii, iv, v): i) Political cycles mismatch with FLR timelines; ii) Planning horizons mismatch with FLR timelines; iii) National restoration objectives mismatch with decentralised land use planning realities; iv) The governance level of existing FLR efforts mismatches with the level receiving restoration funds; and v) Tensions exist between the spatial dimensions of biodiversity and water-related restoration efforts. The findings highlight that more attention must be given to scale-sensitive governance to make the process in which national FLR targets are translated into local action more effective.     

European farms’ participation in agri-environmental measures

Due to their diversity and voluntariness, agri-environmental measures (AEMs) are among the Common Agricultural Policy instruments that are most difficult to assess. We provide an EU-wide analysis of AEM adoption and farm’s total AEM support over total Utilised Agricultural Area using a Heckman sample selection approach and single farm data. Our analysis covers 22 Member States over the 2000–2009 period, assesses the entire portfolio of AEMs and focuses on the relationship between AEM participation and farming system. Results show that participation in AEMs is more likely in less intensive production systems, where, however, per committed hectare AEM premiums tend to be lower. Member States group into three categories: high/low intensity farming systems with low/high AEM enrollment rates, respectively, and large high diversity countries with medium AEM enrollment rates.     

The attitude of grassland farmers towards nature conservation and agri-environment measures—A survey-based analysis

Grasslands have a multi-layer protection function for nature, biodiversity and climate. These functions can be fostered by an adapted management on grassland farms. Promoting nature protection alongside agricultural production is an aim of European agricultural policy. However, a number of studies indicate that existing Agri-environment measures (AEM) are not as effective as assumed, mainly because they are not sufficiently used by farmers. We investigated the view of grassland farmers on nature conservation and on existing AEM in four distinct regions on a west to east gradient in the North German Plain. We conducted a survey on 82 grassland farms inquiring basic farm data and asking questions on general agricultural issues and nature protection. The results indicate that the majority of all respondents is generally interested in nature conservation and believes it to be of concern for every farmer. In contrast, only a minority of grassland farmers is using the existing AEM to the full extend on their own farm. By applying the concept of farming styles, we classified farmers into four groups, namely Traditionalist, Idealist, Modernist, and Yield Optimizer. These farming styles groups differ in farm and management parameters, general attitudes towards agricultural issues, farming objectives and economic success. We found that in our survey the farming styles groups differ in their attitude towards nature conservation. However, they do not differ in the adoption of AEM and have different reasons for not taking part. We state that for a better implementation of AEM into agricultural practice a better communication, which is adapted to the different ways that farmers manage their farm and think and feel, is needed. Consequently, AEM need to be revised as well.     

中国国土空间用途管制的基础性问题思考

研究目的:明确国土空间用途管制的科学内涵,讨论新时代统一国土空间用途管制体系的基础性问题。研究方法:理论分析法和归纳演绎法。研究结果:(1)国土空间用途管制的对象是一个空间、属性与行为三位一体的复杂系统,管制实施中需协调好实体空间、功能空间与管理空间的关系。同时,异质性、动态性与尺度性等主要空间属性影响着管制实践的效率。(2)新时代国土空间用途管制完善了用途管制理念方法,但实践的滞后性引发了系统治理思维与分区分类管控的矛盾,空间尺度性与事权划分不匹配,管制手段中审批与许可关系不清等问题。(3)机构改革为自然资源统一管理带来机遇,但管制主体的职能界限模糊与"上下不对齐"的治理结构设置也带来了新的挑战。研究结论:国土空间用途管制在国家现代化治理体系中发挥着举足轻重的作用,内容体系逐渐完善,但基础理论认知和管制实施的矛盾仍旧突出,需要在今后的实践中不断改进。     

Implementing the water framework directive in Denmark – Lessons on agricultural measures from a legal and regulatory perspective

One of the major challenges in the implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) is how to address diffuse agricultural pollution of the aquatic environment. In Denmark the implementation of agricultural measures has been fraught with difficulty in the form of delays and legal proceedings, despite an ambitious starting point. Why has the implementation of the WFD been so difficult? Based on an analysis of three core components (effectiveness, scale and legal issues) of three agricultural measures (riparian zones, reduced management of streams and catch crops), the paper argues that the legal and regulatory complexity of adopting mandatory land use related measures at the national level to achieve site-specific environmental objectives was underestimated in a top-down political process. The ambitious mandatory policy measures, which added to existing high regulation pressure, led to regulatory challenges, such as possible violation of private property rights raising questions about the actual environmental effects at local level. Consequently, political acceptability and legitimacy of the agricultural measures were undermined, resulting in a gradual withdrawal of the measures and a policy failure. It is argued that the adoption of more flexible measures to be implemented at the local level could have resulted in fewer difficulties from an economic and legal point of view as measures could have been applied where there was a clear environmental benefit, and possibly also at a lower cost.     

Encouraging collaboration for the provision of ecosystem services at a landscape scale—Rethinking agri-environmental payments

In this viewpoint we draw on insights from participatory agri-environmental policy making, spatial planning and collaborative approaches to environmental management. We propose steps for planning, design and implementation of agri-environmental payment schemes that will encourage collaboration and co-ordinated actions at a landscape scale to contribute more effectively to the continued provision of ecosystem services.     

Reflexive loops on scaling issues in landscape quality assessment

Though most landscape ecologists have integrated scaling issues in their works, these issues are often disregarded in landscape perception and preference studies. Researchers base their studies on a predefined single scale to assess the landscape, and they pay little attention to the scale specificity of their analysis and recommendations. We reconsidered three landscape assessment studies from our research unit in light of scaling issues. In addition to the scale of the assessed landscape, researchers should address the scale of the landscape surrogate that is submitted for assessment, including the spatial references of the people surveyed and the target level of application of the results. Indeed, many of the landscape assessment methods mix different landscape notions and scales. Therefore, we recommend the cautious use of these assessments, the integration of qualitative insights in addition tithe scoring and paying attention to the perception scale, as defined by Fairclough (2006).     

The struggle to achieve holistic landscape planning: Lessons from planning the E6 road route through Tanum World Heritage Site,Sweden

Since the EU introduced the European Landscape Convention (ELC) in 2000, the landscape has received growing attention in spatial planning and environmental impact assessments. To promote implementation of the ELC, the Swedish National Heritage Board proposed its Landscape Vision 2020, which addresses the goal of a ‘holistic landscape policy’. This study examined challenges and benefits brought by such a holistic approach to handling landscape protection/management within four issues in planning practice, namely cross-sector cooperation, local participation, integrating culture and nature, and bridging past and future. The analysis focused on a controversial road project passing through a World Heritage Site in Sweden. The results showed that the four issues were closely interlinked. In the case study, a new wave of cross-sector cooperation at authority level was observed, but it was also found to dominate the entire planning process and eventually limit the achievement of the other three issues. In conclusion, this study identified institutional culture and political context as key explanatory factors for understanding how the ELC and a holistic landscape view can be implemented in national practice.     

A Spatial Econometric Approach to the Economics of Site-Specific Nitrogen Management in Corn Production

The objective of this study is to determine the potential for using spatial econometric analysis of combine yield monitor data to estimate the site-specific crop response functions. The specific case study is for site-specific nitrogen (N) application to corn production in Argentina. Spatial structure of the yield data is modeled with landscape variables, spatially autoregressive error and groupwise heteroskedasticity. Results suggest that N response differs by landscape position, and that site-specific application may be modestly profitable. Profitability depends on the model specification used, with all spatial models consistently indicating profitability, whereas the nonspatial models do not.     

Assessment of regulation of legal relations of territorial planning: A case study in Lithuania

Land management is inevitably linked to the regulation of activities of its proprietor or operator stipulated by legislation and documents of territorial planning. In Lithuania, as in many European countries, territorial planning is a key measure for the formation of landscape and the alteration of its elements. With the help of territorial planning documents, governing authorities has the opportunity to orderly regulate the layout of long-term stable elements of landscape and the sustainable territorial development. However, in comparison with other European Union (hereinafter – EU) countries, territorial planning system valid in Lithuania until January 1, 2014 is still “young” and having specific features with former countries of the Soviet bloc legal regulation. The system did not provided a consistent and sustainable territorial development mechanism: there was the lack of measures allowing to manage the development processes of residential areas and implementation of territorial planning documents (especially the municipal master plans) solutions for the creation of a harmonious functional spatial system. The aim of the present paper is to assess the regulation of legal relations of territorial planning in Lithuania and the EU member states. The assessment summarizes processes of the formation of a landscape during the territorial planning, introduces new opportunities to more accurately predict the results of the current process of landscape planning, and highlights legal and sustainable elements of territorial planning system optimization. As can be seen from the assessment carried out, one of the most important territorial planning objectives was and still remains the balance of mutual relations (hierarchy of plans) of territorial planning documents in shaping the cultural landscape to ensure the rational distribution of the land fund, combining a variety of activities as well as often different land users’ and public interests. Therefore, the implementation of the territorial planning reform of Lithuania capacitates for the transition to an integrated territorial planning, ensuring sustainable development.     

The politics of multi-scalar action in river basin management: Implementing the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD)

Scholars of environmental governance are increasingly intrigued by issues of scale. Efforts to institutionalise river basin management represent a pertinent exemplar, as they aspire to strengthen hydrological vis-à-vis political–administrative scales of governance. The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) is one of the most ambitious policy initiatives worldwide to reconfigure water management planning around the hydrological scale of river basins. Whilst it is widely assumed that the WFD is rescaling water governance in Europe, few empirical studies have been conducted to ascertain how far this is the case, what scalar strategies and practices are emerging and to what effect. The paper addresses these open issues with a study analysing the multi-scalar actions of water authorities, water management organisations, local authorities and interest groups involved in implementing the WFD. It investigates how stakeholders are acting scalar from the local to the European scale and back to further their interests in the course of WFD implementation, focussing on the Wupper sub-basin in Germany. Drawing for conceptual insight on the human geography debate on the politics of scale and processes of rescaling, we demonstrate how all relevant stakeholders are increasingly working across scales to advance their interests but in very different ways, with different degrees of deliberation and to different effect. A typology of multi-scalar action is developed to interpret this diversity. The paper draws conclusions on how multi-scalar action is altering not only power relations between the actors but also the scalar configurations themselves.     

Resource connectivity for beneficial insects in landscapes dominated by monoculture tree crop plantations

Homogenization of agricultural landscapes affects ecological processes and biodiversity and can affect the community composition of ecosystem service providers. These effects can have particular impact in landscapes dominated by monocultures of pollinator-dependent tree crop plantations, which create both spatial and temporal homogeneity at the landscape scale. I looked for associations between the proportion of nearby unmanaged vegetation and potential wild pollinator groups collected within flowering almond orchards in two types of landscape. In the Complex landscape, characterized by a heterogeneous mosaic of multiple crops, semi-natural grassland and natural woodland, insect pollinator groups were not associated with unmanaged vegetation. In the Simple landscape, dominated by monoculture almond plantations, most pollinator groups showed positive relationships with the two unmanaged vegetation types (grassland and woodland). In particular, all wild bee and all but one hoverfly individual were found in remnant native vegetation patches within almond plantations, rather than within rows of almond trees. More research is necessary to identify how structural differences created in monoculture landscapes, between crops and the native vegetation they encroach on, influence ecological communities and the provision of ecosystem services.     

3S技术在景观生态学中的应用研究概述

景观生态学是研究景观尺度上的生态学问题;3S技术是景观生态学的重要技术支撑它为景观生态学研究提供了极为有效的一系列工具,成为资料收集、存储、处理和分析所不可缺少的手段;对当前国内外利用3S技术在景观数据的获取、景观空间格局分析、景观生态监测、评价与管理、景观空间模拟、景观生态规划等方面的应用研究进行了概述,旨在为3S技术在景观生态学中的广泛应用起一定的推动作用。     

Interaction effects of targeted agri-environmental payments on non-marketed goods and services under climate change in a mountain region

Targeting of agri-environmental measures (AEMs) is a key to increasing the cost-effectiveness of governmental support for biodiversity conservation and the provision of ecosystem services from agriculture. Existing literature, however, often focuses on single measures without considering that policies are usually bundles of different measures addressing multiple non-marketed goods and services. Thus, interaction effects of a set of policies in a given policy mix may influence the cost-effectiveness of single measures. Recently, Swiss agricultural policy was redesigned using the Tinbergen rule as its basis, i.e., a single measure for each policy goal, including additional targeted direct payments. This facilitates testing for interaction effects of multiple targeted AEMs. Here we use a social-ecological, agent-based modelling framework to assess interaction effects of these agricultural policies while accounting for climate change impacts in our analysis. The results from our case study in a mountain region show that ecosystem service provision increases with targeted payments. However, interaction effects of the different targeted policies affect the provision levels of all goods and services. In particular, changes at the extensive margin, i.e., the total amount of land that is under production, largely determine the amount of ecosystem services provided. Thus, climate change driven productivity increases and policies that keep land in production may substantially support the provision of non-marketed goods and services in marginal agricultural production regions with a high potential for land abandonment. Consequently, the effectiveness of targeted policy measures should also consider changes at the extensive margin and be assessed in the context of bundles or portfolios of different policy measures.     

景观异质性视角下生物多样性对农田生产力的影响研究进展与启示

目的 通过总结景观异质性的相关文献,明确现阶段景观异质性研究中生物多样性对农田生产力影响的趋势和方向,为后续研究与相关政策制定提供理论支持和参考依据。方法 文章对国内外不同景观异质性下对生物多样性和农田生产力的影响情况进行分析,梳理生物多样性对农田生产力的影响方式,了解影响农田景观异质性大小的因素和原理,系统总结了三者之间存在的级联关系,提出了农田可持续发展的实践建议。结果 （1）景观空间异质性对生物多样性—农田生产力关系具有显著的积极影响,但存在一定的阈值,超过该值则会产生负面影响;（2）在空间异质性视角下,农田中生物多样性与生产力之间存在广泛的正相关关系,农田面积作为一项操作简便且影响较大的农田景观指标,具有巨大的潜力;（3）景观的时间异质性和功能异质性与农田生物多样性—生产力关系同样具有积极的协同作用,在未来的研究中应当占有一席之地。结论 从景观异质性的视角出发,农田生物多样性对生产力有着广泛的积极影响,同时存在一个阈值使得二者关系达到最大值,通过采取保护小斑块农田等方法实现生态和生产的“双赢”,实现高质量的农业可持续健康发展。     

Misfits and compliance patterns in the transposition and implementation of the Habitats Directive—four cases

This paper investigates the transposition and implementation of the Habitats Directive in four European member states, namely Denmark, the Netherlands, Greece, and Romania, and the role that institutional misfits have played in more or less successful implementation processes. Departing in the ‘Worlds of Compliance’ literature, it also explores if this typology can be useful for understanding the ways member states address institutional adaptation pressures in the implementation steps following the transposition phase. The requirements in the Habitats Directive expanded most member states’ nature conservation frameworks, especially in the obligation to introduce pro-active conservation, and it also laid down a number of steps to be taken for creating the European Natura 2000 network. It was found that the transposition did mostly follow general compliance types, but that these types also helped understand the extent and adequacy of adaptations and changes to the institutional framework in the implementation processes following the directive’s adoption. Implementation challenges were different for different countries. They showed a need to align institutional frameworks for a) Natura 2000 in areas with several existing types of landscape protections and ensuing spatial and institutional overlaps; b) clarifying the roles and responsibilities of various authorities involved in implementation; c) ensuring coordination with the other sectorial policy areas that interact with the Habitats Directive (such as the Nitrate Directive and the Water Framework Directive). It turned out that there could be a need for more flexible and less-top-down European legislation, providing a larger room-for-manoeuvre for integration with domestic approaches.     

土地整治的生物多样性保护

生物多样性的保护是社会可持续发展的基础,是生态安全和粮食安全的保障。[目的]为进一步开展土地整治中保护生物多样性研究提供借鉴。[方法]采用文献资料法、归纳总结法从土地整治的规划、设计、施工和后期管护层面,总结梳理土地整治中对生物多样性保护的研究与工程实践,并对其趋势进行展望。[结果]未来还需从以下几方面进行研究(1)加强生物多样性保护在不同规划中的具体体现以及不同规划的衔接和融合;(2)强化景观生态中生物多样性保护的设计方法在土地整治中的应用以及设计技术的研发创新(3)注重土地整治中生态措施在施工方面的落实以及施工技术的提高;(4)更加注重土地整治中对生物多样性保护后期管护的有效性,主要从技术和制度层面。[结论]土地整治的生物多样性保护是贯彻落实"推进生态文明"和"建设美丽中国"发展战略的重要工作,研究成果丰富土地整治内涵,为生物多样性保护提供理论参考。     

To populate or preserve? Evolving political-demographic and environmental paradigms in Israeli land-use policy

There has been a recent proliferation of national land-use policies that emphasize protecting open space and ecosystem integrity. However, countries grappling with internal political conflict, or that are engaged in military conflicts with neighboring countries, have priorities that focus on control of land in areas where state sovereignty is perceived to be threatened. These two concerns, political-demographic control and environmental protection, create very different paradigms for how to think about open space policy. The objective of this paper is to consider the impact of competing paradigms in land-use policy formulation and implementation—one that encourages sprawl and the other that encourages compact development and the preservation of open space. We use Israel as a case study where both political demography and environmental land-use paradigms are currently influencing policy and planning. We explore the historical evolution of both land-use paradigms and consider how they are currently competing in the formulation and execution of land-use policy decisions. We consider how these distinct priorities are playing out in current discourse and policy implementation, and characterize the past, current and prospective future physical outcomes of policies on the landscape. Our goal is to alert policy makers and land-use scholars of the subtle and contradictory influence of political-demographic land-use priorities with regard to their potential impact on the successful implementation of environmental policies. The Israeli case study is indicative of a diversity of countries that have a history of political-demographic land-use policies, but have also begun to adopt environmentally motivated policies.     

Quantification of landscape transformation due to the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) in Zimbabwe using remotely sensed data

After independence, Zimbabwe adopted two major land reform programmes to address the racially skewed land ownership. Due to the perceived failure of these programmes, the country embarked on a highly politicised and forceful acquisition and re-distribution of white owned commercial farms under the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP). Whereas a large number of Zimbabweans have been allocated land under the programme, there has been a significant decline in agricultural productivity and an increase in degradation of land and associated resources. Popular opinion has even suggested the country’s current socio-economic challenges are linked to the programme. Mitigating land degradation, enhancing agricultural productivity and promoting natural resources sustainability requires an objective understanding and determination landscape transformation within relevant administrative decision making spatial extents. In this study, we adopted multi-temporal remotely sensed imagery to determine landscape transformation after the implementation of the FTLRP in Chipinge administrative district, characterised by heterogeneous land usage and natural resources. Major land-use-land-cover types were determined using the Support Vector Machine classification algorithm and accuracy established using field survey and ancillary data. Results show significant landscape transformation after the implementation of the FTLRP. Specifically, there was a decline in plantations, small farms, water bodies and forests and an increase in bare areas and settlements. This study demonstrates the value of remotely data in monitoring landscape transformation arising from a shift in policy. Furthermore, these results provide an insight into multi-temporal spatial changes in cultivated, natural and degraded lands, valuable for designing measures to improve landscape productivity and to adopt relevant rehabilitation measures. Understanding multi-temporal landscape change within an administrative boundary is particularly valuable for area specific planning, policy formulation and adoption of desired mitigation measures.