Food costs for the current and recommended diet of German infants,children and adolescents

Abstract Higher food costs of a recommended diet may be a barrier to the improvement of unhealthy dietary habits. For the assessment of food costs for children, age-specific dietary intakes as well as average food prices must be known. This study is based on the measured food intake from a total of 1668 3-day weighed diet records of children aged from 5 months to 18 years and on recommended dietary intakes for these age groups. Based on the food costs related to the energy intake (Deutschmarks per megajoule; DM per MJ), the recommended diet using common food products does not incur higher costs than the current diet in all age groups. For infants, a diet using commercial infant food conforming to the restrictive German pesticide regulations incurs 50–150% higher food costs than the use of home-made meals. For children and adolescents, the nutritionally inferior quality of the current diet can be improved by a price-balanced interchange of foods, mainly by favouring plant foods instead of meat and confectionery.     

Counting the cost of healthy eating: a Swedish comparison of Mediterranean‐style and ordinary diets

The aim of this research was to examine the cost of a diet generally regarded as healthy, a Swedish version of the Mediterranean diet, and to compare it with the cost of an ordinary Swedish diet. A total of 30 individuals provided detailed dietary data collected in a randomized intervention study, examining the effect of dietary change to a Mediterranean‐style diet in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (Mediterranean group, n = 16, control group, n = 14). The data, covering 1‐month dietary intake, were examined with three different diet quality indicators to see whether the Mediterranean group consumed a healthier diet than the control group. All diet quality indicators showed that the Mediterranean group consumed a healthier diet than the control group. Consumer food prices were used to analyse the cost of the different diets. In immediate consumer cost terms, eating a healthier diet was more expensive when differences in energy intake were discounted. However, non‐energy adjusted costs showed no significant difference between the groups. Hence, if one of the reasons for choosing a healthier diet is to achieve weight loss – by consuming less energy – it is possible that healthier eating is not more expensive.     

Young child feeding practices and child nutritional status in rural Ghana

A study was conducted in the Manya Krobo district of Ghana with the objective of studying young child feeding practices and child nutrition situation in the area. The study was a cross‐sectional survey involving 400 mothers with young children between 0 and 18 months. A combination of methods, including structured interviews using questionnaire, dietary assessment and anthropometry, was used to collect data for the study. The data obtained were analysed using spss version 10 in Windows. Means and standard deviations were generated for continuous variables and frequency distribution for categorical variables. The results revealed that although breastfeeding rates were high (97%), complementary feeding practices were less than ideal with as many as 14% of the children being introduced to complementary foods below the age of 3 months. The nutritional quality of complementary foods were poor and the prevalence of stunting among the children was high (20%). For adequate complementary feeding and improved child nutrition in this population, nutrition education intervention programmes aimed at improving nutrient intake among young children, through improved diet diversity and increased use of local foods rich in iron and other nutrients, need to be undertaken.     

Examination of the health‐belief model to predict the dietary quality and body mass of adults

We examined the ability of the health‐belief model to predict individuals’ dietary quality and body mass among a nationwide sample of 1319 adults in the United States. Simultaneous estimation of the structural equation model found acceptable goodness‐of‐fit to the data. Explained variance in dietary quality and body mass, however, were moderate to weak. The model included three types of nutrition knowledge: basic facts, diet–health awareness and ability to accurately self‐assess nutrient intake. None of these variables had a strong effect on dietary quality or body mass. We speculate that lifestyle characteristics, cultural habits, community infrastructure, and the politics of food production and retailing – variables found in other studies to affect dietary quality and body mass yet not available in our data – might outweigh the effects of nutrition knowledge and sociodemographic factors on estimating dietary quality and body mass. We suggest that future research and intervention programmes focus more on social, cultural and political context than on nutrition knowledge. Current collaborations among life and social scientists to design foods to improve human nutrition might also prove effective in reducing the prevalence of overweight and obesity.     

宁夏农业学校学生膳食营养状况调查与分析

为了解宁夏农业学校学生膳食营养状况,为制订切实可行的干预措施提供科学依据,采用自制问卷调查的方式,通过24小时膳食回顾法与食物频率法相结合的调查方法,了解学生日常饮食的具体情况。根据中国居民膳食营养指南,分析学生膳食营养情况,运用BMI值评估学生的体质状况。结果显示,与中国居民平衡膳食宝塔的推荐量相比,宁夏农业学校学生的膳食结构中蔬菜、水果、肉类、奶类摄入量过少,膳食的能量不足;三餐比例中早餐能量摄入过少;三大产能营养素功能比例基本适宜;学生体质状况良好。宁夏农业学校学生的饮食行为存在很多问题,需及时给予适当的膳食行为干预,以提高学生的营养健康水平。     

Food consumption patterns,dietary quality and health status of expectant mothers: case studies in suburban and rural communities in Ghana

The study was conducted to determine the food consumption patterns, dietary quality and health status of expectant women and also to assess their level of awareness of nutritional requirements during pregnancy. Food beliefs, taboos and superstitions held by the women were also investigated. Using the purposive sampling technique, 30 pregnant women attending the Maternal and Child Health Clinic at Dodowa (rural) and University Hospital, Legon (suburban), were selected for the study. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information on the respondents’ nutritional knowledge, beliefs, taboos and superstitions and health status. A food frequency questionnaire and the 24‐h dietary recall method were used to obtain information on food consumption patterns and dietary quality. The study revealed that, although the majority of the respondents (83.3%) had some knowledge of nutrition, not all were applying it in their feeding practices because of financial constraints. With regard to consumption patterns, most of the women (83.3%) were having three meals a day, while the rest either ate twice a day or anytime they were hungry. Seventy‐three per cent of the respondents also increased their food intake during pregnancy. Foods eaten were based mainly on starchy roots and tubers, cereals and vegetables. Legumes, oilseeds and fruits were often lacking in the main meals of respondents. Although animal products were consumed daily, the quantities taken were very small to provide for adequate protein, especially in the rural area. Various types of food were avoided by some of the expectant mothers for reasons such as nausea, loss of appetite, taboos and superstition. With regard to dietary quality, respondents from the rural area had diets of poorer quality in terms of nutrient intake compared with those from the suburban area. In both communities, iron contents of diets were quite low. Forty‐seven per cent of the women interviewed were anaemic, with a higher prevalence of anaemia being observed in the rural community. Common ailments reported by the women were dizziness, headache, waist pains and malaria. Based on the results of the study, it was recommended that nutrition education for pregnant women should be stepped up at antenatal clinics especially in rural areas.     

The golden age of protein: initial teacher trainee's perception of food and eating

We make use of proteins in all aspects of our daily lives from soft‐centred sweets to biological washing powders, yet we often misunderstand their fundamental role in our diet. This paper will draw on the findings of a three‐phase research project into initial teacher trainee's perception of food and eating. Trainees demonstrated several similar misconceptions about the food they eat and in particular, the role of proteins. Examples included the role of proteins as an energy source, the relationship between proteins, amino acids and nitrogen and the role of DNA in synthesising proteins. These misconceptions were often translated into practice in the diet the trainees consumed and the messages they passed on, with confidence, to their pupils. In addition to the misconceptions, teaching approaches used by the trainees were highly mechanistic, with little reference being given to the relationship between food and the circumstances in which it is eaten. The relationship between dietary intake and exercise/circumstance is explored in secondary schools within food technology lessons. Often, however, it is too late to rectify the deeply entrenched misconceptions, attitudes and eating habits that school children have developed in their primary years. This paper makes the firm recommendation that we should reconsider the dietary messages we are sending out either directly or indirectly, to children. It emphasises the need to relate teaching and learning to everyday experiences. The paper concludes by suggesting possible strategies by which this may be achieved, with the protein featuring centre‐stage.     

Independent decision making of adolescents regarding food choice

The adolescence period is the stage in the life cycle in which individuals begin to develop independent decision making related to their social environment including their dietary intake. The period is fundamental in the development of longer term eating habits that may be reflected in adulthood. This study aimed to investigate the decision‐making process of adolescents and their dietary behaviour in the achievement of a balanced diet and to determine the underlying factors that may affect these choices. To meet this aim, a three phase data collection was utilized. In phase 1, a baseline questionnaire (n = 239) measured factors affecting dietary behaviour and the barriers in the achievement of a balanced diet. Phase two employed and measured respondents’ (n = 235) independent decision making by rating nineteen menu choices which reflected all options of dietary guidelines. This was analyzed through conjoint analysis. In phase three a subsample (n = 55) from the first two phases completed a food map which determined underlying reasons for food decisions and choice behaviour. Results revealed that when adolescents are given free choice they tend to follow an unbalanced diet with some diets raising concerns for their current and future health. Fifty‐seven percent of respondents displayed serious concerns in their dietary choice of which 18% were identified as requiring immediate intervention. The most noticeable factors affecting dietary choice were the desire to eat foods high in fat and carbohydrates and low in fruit and vegetable consumption. Food‐mapping indicated prior knowledge and attitudes had no effect on the choices made but that that behaviour of parents in the preparation of meals at home and peers in the selection of snack choices had the most influence on the unbalanced diet.     

Parental work status and children's dietary consumption: Australian evidence

This study investigated associations between parents' work status and the dietary consumption patterns of Australian children, and whether such associations vary by parental education and usage of nonparental childcare. Data from the longitudinal study of Australian children at two waves from ages 2–3 years (n = 4601) to 4–5 years (n = 4381) were analysed. Logistic regression models were used to calculate odds ratios of children consuming (≥1 times/day) fruit and vegetables (FV), high fat foods (HFF), high sugar drinks (HSD), as well as evaluating the incidence of breakfast consumption. This was analysed against the employment status of parents including full‐time, part‐time and unemployed. Children of part‐time employed mothers were more likely to consume breakfast, and less likely to consume HSD compared with children of full‐time employed mothers. Children of part‐time employed fathers were less likely to consume FV and breakfast, and more likely to consume HSD compared with children of full‐time employed fathers. Children of nonemployed mothers were more likely to consume HFF, whilst those of nonemployed fathers were more likely to consume HSD and less likely to consume breakfast compared with other children. Amongst less‐educated parents, children of unemployed and part‐time employed parents were more likely to consume HFF and HSD and less likely to consume FV and breakfast compared with children of full‐time employed parents. Amongst highly educated parents, children of unemployed and part‐time employed mothers were less likely to consume HSD compared with children of full‐time employed mothers. Children of part‐time employed mothers who used family day care, day care centres and grandparent care were less likely to consume HSD and more likely to consume breakfast compared with children of full‐time employed mothers. Children of part‐time employed fathers and unemployed parents who used day care centres and grandparent care were less likely to consume FV and more likely to consume HFF compared with children of full‐time employed parents. Future studies should pursue a better understanding of the mechanisms for the adverse effects of parental work status on dietary consumption to develop and enhance specific interventions targeting these groups.     

我国饮食消费现象与问题研究

中国饮食文化历史悠久,熠熠生辉。但在这繁盛的光环背后也暴露出国人饮食片面追逐口腔满足的种种乱象:诸如吃喝铺张、宴席负重等等。在新的时代里,中国人的饮食应敢于去其糟粕、革故鼎新,并在传统优良食风的基础上不断发扬光大,以使中华饮食与国际接轨,成为真正意义上的饮食文明大国。     

The role of parental influence and additional factors in the determination of food choices for pre‐school children

Every pre‐school child requires an adult to purchase and provide a variety of foods, to help ensure a balanced selection is included in the diet to avoid any nutritional deficiencies. Children under 5 years have a greater demand for nutrients and energy to support the body's requirements for growth and development than at any other time throughout their life cycle. The paper critically reviews the main factors that influence food choices made by parents on behalf of their pre‐school child. Dietary deficiencies in inner city areas remain a challenge for the government, educators and health professionals. A particular concern is iron deficiency as the prevalence of anaemia is common especially in British pre‐school children from various family backgrounds. Poor parenting skills often exacerbate the problem, especially the early introduction of pasteurized cow's milk, poor weaning practices and lack of dietary knowledge. Therefore, improving education and understanding about the importance of iron could potentially improve dietary iron intake. Phase 1 of the study was completed in West Bridgford area of Nottingham in the UK. This part of the study aimed to determine parental knowledge with regards to the feeding of their pre‐school child. A questionnaire and a 3‐day diet history method were employed. These methods enabled the diet adequacy of the pre‐schoolers to be analysed by NetWISP software. This study highlighted that iron deficiency remains a cause for concern and should be further addressed. The Sure Start programme is a possible means of education as it has the potential to access parents from all socio‐economic classes. The programme can support and empower parents to become healthier consumers. Good dietary habits, established early in life, contributes to a positive start, and can be advantageous to individuals throughout their lifetime. Such long‐term changes will help contribute to a healthier nation that the government envisages for the future.     

Assessing nutritional adequacy of Americans based on individual food intake patterns

The study assumes that different food patterns are the major attributes that contribute and affect the adequacy of an individual's diet and nutritional status. Analysis of dietary patterns provides a means for generalization of the diversity of diets among individuals. It also provides a basis for assessing the nutritional adequacy of such diets. The study uses individual food intake data obtained from the 1977–1978 USDA Nationwide Household Food Consumption Survey (NFCS) to classify individuals into groups of similar food consumption patterns. Nutritional profiles associated with each identified food pattern were evaluated to determine the nutritional adequacy of such diets. To analyse nutritional adequacy, the study identifies four major dietary patterns based on cluster analysis. The concepts of nutrient density and index of nutritional quality were then used to assess the adequacy of each food pattern and to identify groups of individuals that may be at risk for malnutrition and other health concerns. Furthermore, regression analyses were used to estimate the relationship between individuals' socioeconomic characteristics and selected nutrient density of their diets.     

Parents’ knowledge,behaviour and concerns of food chemical hazards: Korean mothers sending their preschool‐aged children to child care centres

Although incidences of foodborne illness caused by chemical hazards are increasing, the studies on public awareness of food chemical hazards are limited. This study was conducted to assess mothers’ knowledge, behaviour and concerns on diverse food chemical hazards. A total of 960 mothers sending their preschool‐aged children to child care centres in Gwanak‐Gu, Seoul, Korea were surveyed, and 633 (65.9%) returned the questionnaires. After excluding inappropriate questionnaires, 364 (37.9%) were analysed. The majority of the mothers were able to identify food categories containing acrylamide (83.2%) and trans fat (80.2%), while slightly over half of the mothers named food categories containing allergen (56.3%) or pesticide residues (57.1%). Less than two thirds of mothers were knowledgeable of human exposure pathway to environmental contaminants (59.3%), acrylamide (55.2%) or heavy metals (65.9%). A significant number of mothers showed familiarity on health risk from dietary exposure to environmental contaminants (82.4%), trans fat (91.5%) or heavy metals (96.7%) (P < 0.05). The data on safe food behaviour towards environmental contaminants (81.8%), acrylamide (98.0%), heavy metals (96.7%) and trans fat (90.6%) showed high levels of right behaviours. About 47.2% and 22.8% of mothers read label of food additives and ingredient statement on allergen when purchasing processed foods, respectively. Mothers seemed to be concerned about food chemical hazards. Among the sociodemographic characteristics, only age significantly differentiated mothers’ concerns on chemical hazards in foods (P < 0.05). This study suggests that mothers needed to be educated on food chemical hazards regardless of their education levels, occupation status or the number of child.     

Food choice,nutrition education and parental influence on British and Korean primary school children

The nutritional status of children can influence their health and the risk factors for developing chronic diseases later in life. Korea is unique in that it is relatively westernized and yet maintains much of the traditional foods and cooking methods. Effective nutrition education should help children to choose a healthy diet through the establishment of positive dietary practices and habits. The main purpose of this research is to compare awareness towards nutrition education between primary schools in the UK and Korea and nutritional knowledge that children and parents have in these countries. Dietary and healthy eating knowledge data were collected by a questionnaire as part of a case study comparison using one primary school in Manchester, UK, and one in Seoul, Korea. A total of 171 primary school children and 124 parents of the children were recruited. The results indicated that children and parents appeared to be aware of the importance of limiting fat, sodium and sugar intakes, and requiring non‐starch polysaccharide (NSP). However, in the case of some foods they did not have satisfactory nutritional knowledge of which foods were high in fat, salt, sugar and NSP. British children had a better understanding of the health implication of fat than Korean children, whereas more Korean children considered excessive salt intake harmful than British children. There seemed to be differences in dietary pattern and familiarity with food between the two countries. Children identified parents as the main source of nutritional information. Therefore, parents as well as children need to learn about nutrition in order to give appropriate information or advice to improve the diets of their children. Children preferred exciting, fun, positive and a practical approach to learning about nutrition, such as computer packages and cookery classes. Parents wanted schools to give their children more information about nutrition. This research has shown that nutrition education in schools should be concerned not only to provide nutritional knowledge but also to encourage children to choose healthy food by redesigning nutrition education and school meals.     

Home-related injuries among under-five-year children and mothers' care regarding injury prevention in rural areas

This cross-sectional study was conducted in rural areas of Twiserkan (Toyserkan) County, in Iran, to assess factors associated with home-related injuries among under-five-year children and their mothers’ care regarding injury prevention. Mothers who had their under-five-year-old children injured within a 12-month period were identified from recorded information in Twiserkan Health Center. Then, data were gathered using pre-tested questionnaire and through interview with injured children's mothers. The questions were about characteristics of the children's injuries and their mothers’ care regarding injury prevention, using PRECEDE (Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Constructs in Educational/Environmental Diagnosis and Evaluation) model with focus on knowledge and attitude; enabling and reinforcing factors; and mothers' preventive behaviours. The study results showed that 197 out of 210 total identified mothers took part in the study. The reported injuries were 11.68%, 39.09%, and 49.24%, respectively, for severe, moderate, and mild cases. Fall was the most frequent injury with 35%. Among PRECEDE model constructs, there was a statistically significant correlation between mothers' knowledge and injury severity among children. Home-related injuries are an important health problem among study population and their prediction and prevention are necessary. Enhancement of mothers’ knowledge can be helpful to improve child injury prevention.     

The effects of the US Food Stamp Program on the dietary quality of parents and their teenagers and children1

Although previous research finds that participation in Food Stamp Programs increases the nutrient availability of low‐income households, examination of the dietary quality of parents, their teenagers (aged 13–18 years), and their children (aged 1–12 years) indicates that participation has no effect on dietary quality of any of these groups. Examination of data from the Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals and Diet and Health Surveys, conducted in the USA, 1994–96, indicates that although transfer payments in the Food Stamp Program might improve quality of life in other areas by freeing income otherwise spent on food, the receipt of food assistance does not improve dietary quality. The findings show that children tend to eat healthier diets than their parents or teenage siblings. Implications are suggested regarding the use of transfer payments to improve the dietary quality of persons living in poverty.     

The golden age of protein: an initial teacher training perspective on the biological role of proteins in our everyday lives

We make use of proteins in all aspects of our daily lives from biological washing powders to soft‐centred sweets, yet their fundamental role in our diet is often misunderstood. This paper draws on the findings of a three‐phase research project into Initial Teacher Trainee's perception of food and eating, where students demonstrated several similar misconceptions about the food they eat and in particular, the role of proteins. More than 50% of the students thought that protein was a primary source of energy and were confused about the relationship between proteins, amino acids and nitrogen, and the role of DNA in synthesizing proteins. These misconceptions were often translated into practice in the diet the students consumed and the messages they passed on, with confidence, to their pupils. In addition to the misconceptions, teaching approaches used by the students were highly mechanistic, with little reference being given to the relationship between food and the circumstances in which it is eaten. The relationship between dietary intake and lifestyle is explored in secondary schools within Food Technology lessons. However, it is often too late to rectify the deeply entrenched misconceptions, attitudes and eating habits that school children have developed in their primary years. This paper makes the recommendation that we should reconsider how nutrition education is delivered in schools, especially at a primary level: emphasizing the need to relate teaching and learning to everyday experiences. The paper concludes by suggesting possible strategies by which this may be achieved, with proteins featuring centre‐stage.     

Consumer goals/skills that mothers want their children to learn

The study purpose was to assess consumer practices and attitudes of mothers (n = 117), and consumer goals/skills that their children were to learn. Mothers with at least one child aged 5–9 years were recruited from an ongoing study and through posters, flyers and referrals. Mail‐out surveys included a validated consumer questionnaire and requests for information related to socioeconomic status (SES), age, paid‐employment and gender/age of children. Responses were analysed using SAS, Cronbach’s alpha and qualitative analyses. Results indicated that mothers were of middle/upper SES and had 2.3 children/family, and 64% were in paid‐employment. Mother–child co‐shopping and mothers’ role modelling were major means of teaching consumer goals/skills. Children were to learn about getting the best buy and quality for the money, cost/unit comparison, being knowledgeable about products and avoidance of impulse buying. Mothers were consciously consumer training their children.     

The contribution of discretionary salt to total salt intake

The aim of this research was to investigate sodium consumption in a group of people, compare this consumption with dietary reference values and to identify sources of sodium in the diet. Participants were given weighed salt pots which were used for 8 weeks and a fully weighed dietary survey was conducted by each subject. The average daily sodium consumption of each subject was calculated and compared with the reference nutrient intake (RNI). Daily sodium intake was found to vary considerably, ranging from 1213 mg (53 mmol) (76% of the RNI) to 10 569 mg (460 mmol) (661% of the RNI). Average daily sodium consumption was found to be 5175 mg (225 mmol), well above the RNI of 1600 mg (70 mmol). The average contribution from discretionary salt was 15.0%, from processed foods 76.5% and from naturally occurring sodium 8.4%. Males were found to consume more sodium than females and a moderate correlation between age and daily sodium intake was found.