我国居民收入分配的格局——帕雷托分布方法

本文为确定一个时期内总体收入分配或特定部分的收入分配究竟是否趋向两极分化和比较中间收入等级和高收入等级的分配份额提供了方法。用帕雷托分布拟合我国1988年和1995年两年的居民收入分配。发现1995年和1988年相比：（1）没有明显证据表明农村居民收入存在两极分化．城镇居民在排除了收入最低的10％人口后，有明显的两极分化趋向；（2）中间等级收入份额减少。收入向高收入者集中；（3）高收入者内部收入分配差别扩大；（4）社会成员在不同的收入等级之间的流动更加容易。     

Intergenerational income persistence and transmission mechanism: Evidence from urban China

In this paper I investigate the intergenerational income association and its transmission channels amid China's economic transition period using urban data from the Chinese Household Income Projects in 1995 and 2002. The estimated intergenerational income elasticity is 0.43 and 0.51 for cohorts educated prior to and after the market reform respectively, and reaches 0.71 among households with above average income in the post-reform era. Besides the conventional channel of education, this paper estimates the contribution from social capital and ownership of work unit across cohorts and income groups. There is weak evidence that prior to market reform, ownership of work unit contributes most to the intergenerational income persistence for households with below average income, while social capital leads the three contributors in households with above average income. However, in the post-reform era, parents with below average income invest statistically significantly in children's education which contributes most to the intergenerational income persistence. The leading contributor in families with above average income shifts to social capital. Possible explanations for such a shift lie in the ability and incentive of parents from different income categories to invest in their children. The results are tested through a series of robustness checks, and provide empirical support for promoting policies on the equality of opportunity.     

COVID-19-associated income loss and job loss: Evidence from Indonesia

COVID-19 pandemic has substantially altered socioeconomic conditions around the world. While numerous existing studies analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic among developed states, little is known about its effects on people’s lives and social discrepancies in emerging economies. To this end, we empirically analyze the 2020 Indonesian Labor Force Survey data, hypothesizing that COVID-19 has given idiosyncratic risks and impacts on people by gender, age, education, occupation and regions. We find that income loss and job loss are prominent among males, younger and less educated people as well as among self-employed and part-time non-agricultural workers. These tendencies are not pronounced for people enjoying high income and mobility, but tend to be evident for urban residents and those having dependents. Notably, self-employed people have the highest risk of losing income, while part-time urban workers face the highest probability of losing their jobs. The propensity score matching method also demonstrates that these losses are most evident for the regions susceptible to COVID-19. Overall, we suggest that socioeconomically disadvantaged groups require additional support to strengthen their resilience in the face of exogenous shocks, such as the one caused by the global coronavirus pandemic.     

中国居民家庭收入代际传递性分析

本文通过对父子收入代际弹性和家庭收入代际弹性的研究,发现子女收入很大程度上受到父亲收入或家庭收入的影响,证明了中国居民收入代际之间存在着较为明显的传递效应,特别是低收入群体。通过内外因分析,可以发现教育成为影响中国居民收入代际传递现象的重要因素。教育是一种重要的代际流动机制,个人教育水平提高和教育环境的公平可以使低收入群体有机会流向更高收入阶层。     

寒门难出贵子?——基于“家庭财富-教育投资-贫富差距”的实证研究

文章首次从教育选择的角度出发,探讨了人力资本投资与收入差距之间的关系,作者首先建立了教育回报的代际交迭模型,推断出富裕家庭教育回报率高这个事实会拉大社会的贫富差距。作者使用1992年至2009年的中国城镇住户调查数据对理论推论进行了论证,实证结果表明出身"寒门"的子女期望教育回报率更低,这拉大了与富裕家庭群体的收入差距,也是"寒门难出贵子"的原因。自2001年来,家庭因素带来的教育回报差异能够解释19.1%的城镇居民收入差距,引入工具变量的结果表明,真实的情况可能更加严重。作者进一步模拟了"新常态"下的贫富差距状况,结果表明,经济潜在增速下降会使得基尼系数扩大6.1%。     

中国经济如何跨越中高等收入陷阱

我国2010年人均GDP已经突破3945美元,根据世界银行对世界各经济体的最新分类标准,我国已经步入中高等收入国家行列,但与此同时我国的收入差距不断拉大。如何将收入差距控制在合理范围内,成功地跨越中高等收入陷阱是当前的紧要问题。本文通过对我国人均GDP及其基尼系数的协整检验发现,我国经济增长与收入分配之间存在一种稳定的长期均衡关系。只有合理的处理我国的收入分配差距问题才能达到经济的持续发展,从而跨越高中等收入陷阱。     

Income growth, inequality and poverty reduction: A case study of eight provinces in China

This paper examines the growth performance and income inequality in eight Chinese provinces during the period of 1989–2004 using the China Health and Nutrition Survey data. It shows that income grew for all segments of the population, and as a result, poverty incidence has fallen. However, income growth has been uneven, most rapidly in coastal areas, and among the educated. A decomposition analysis based on household income determination suggests that income growth can largely be attributed to the increase in returns to education and to the shift of employment into secondary and tertiary sectors.     

Inequality of opportunity in household income,China 2002–2018

This study contributes to the literature on inequality of opportunity (IOp) in China by covering a longer and more recent span of time, employing better measures of given characteristics, and analyzing IOp for household income per capita with comparisons to individual income. Furthermore, it analyzes how IOp differs between the rural- and urban-born, and how IOp changes across birth cohorts and with age. We use 2002, 2013 and 2018 data from the Chinese Household Income Study and focus on income inequality among working-age persons. We find that IOp in China declined, especially between 2013 and 2018. In 2002 the large contributors to IOp were region, hukou type at birth, and parents' characteristics. In 2018 the contributions of region, hukou type at birth and parents' occupation had decreased, but that of parents' education had increased. We find that IOp is larger among those born in rural than urban China. Furthermore, IOP's contribution to total inequality within each birth cohort is highest earlier in individuals' work lives and declines with age. IOp is higher for older than younger birth cohorts, reflecting that younger cohorts have benefited from increased opportunities associated with China's reforms and opening up.     

控制重庆农村居民收入区域差距的对策分析

重庆划为直辖市以来,农村居民收入总体水平虽然有所提高,但增长缓慢,同时各经济区域间农民收入出现显著差异,并有逐步扩大的趋势,成为影响农民生活和农村社会稳定的重要问题,本文根据相关统计资料,通过对不同区域间农村居民收入差异及其变动情况的分析,探索了影响农民收入区域差距的原因,并为增加农村居民收入,控制农民收入差距提出了对策与建议。     

从基尼系数看我国的收入分配

我国经济持续快速增长的进程中,人们的收入保持着快速增长。但各地、不同人群的增长速度有快有慢,人们的贫富差距日益扩大。作为经济学中衡量贫富差距的公认的指标———基尼系数较真实地反映了这一现象。基尼系数的涵义以及应用得到重视,同时,基尼系数在应用中也存在一些不足。重视基尼系数,及时调整收入分配结构是未来我国经济发展的关键。     

Parental income and child health in Japan

Previous studies have consistently found evidence of an income gradient in health among children in various countries, and studies in Anglo-Saxon countries have found that this gradient increases with child age. Using nationally representative individual-level data, I examine the association between child health and parental income in Japan. Japan has a child poverty rate that is similar to the rate of many countries that have been studied previously, but Japan outperforms those countries on most health indicators. I find that an income gradient exists in child health in Japan, but that it is limited to specific health measures and symptoms, and that it is weaker overall in that respect than the gradient found in other countries or among Japanese adults. Moreover, I find no evidence that the gradient increases with child age. The fact that children in low-income families have relatively modest and non-accumulating health disadvantages may contribute to the overall health of the Japanese population. Nevertheless, there is a statistically significant negative association between parental income and the incidences of asthma, hearing problems, and dental symptoms in children, implying that future efforts to improve the health of underprivileged children should focus on the prevention and control of these diseases.     

外资进入对城镇居民收入的影响及差异——基于中国城镇家庭住户收入调查数据(CHIP)的经验研究

本文运用中国城镇家庭住户收入调查数据(CHIP),实证检验了外资进入对收入总体水平的影响.实证研究发现:外资进入对居民收入具有显著的正向效应,在控制了性别、年龄、政治面貌、受教育程度和工作经验等基本的收入决定要素下,逐步引入产业、省份、企业所有权和职业类别的固定效应后,检验结果依然稳健.本文进一步验证了外资进入对不同类型劳动者的影响.其结果显示:外资进入对高技能劳动收入的正向影响大于对低技能劳动力收入的正向影响;外资进入对不同所有制企业的劳动者收入的影响存在差异;外资进入对男性劳动力收入的正向影响大于对女性劳动力收入的正向影响;外资进入对高收入者的正向影响大于对低收入者的正向影响.因此,从某种意义上说,外资进入在提高居民总体收入水平的同时,也在拉大居民间的收入差距     

Top incomes and income polarisation in China

Income polarisation is normally measured using household survey data, but such data often provide insufficient coverage of top incomes. This paper combines data from the Chinese Household Income Project and Top Incomes in China databases for 2002, 2013, and 2018 to study the trends in, reasons for, and heterogeneity of income polarisation in China between 2002 and 2018. Our main findings are as follows. (1) Introducing external top-income data increases the estimated level of polarisation in each of the three surveyed years, but polarisation trends are not affected. (2) Polarisation increases significantly between 2002 and 2013, due to a rise in polarisation among poor residents. Polarisation remains stable between 2013 and 2018, due to the expansion of the middle-income group; the convergence to the middle of the distribution is attributable mainly to the poor, rather than the rich. (3) In 2018, levels of polarisation are higher among male, well educated, and urban residents than among female, less educated, and rural residents, respectively.     

The impact of financial development on the income and consumption levels of China’s rural residents

In this paper, we investigate the impact of financial development on rural residents’ income and consumption levels in China. We discover that the development of traditional financial services has little impact on the income and consumption levels of rural residents. In contrast, the development of emerging financial services has a significant positive impact on the income and consumption levels of rural residents. Traditional financial services, as is well known, require collateral and high expected future cash flows from customers, making financial inclusion difficult. Emerging financial services in China are special financial services promoted by financial regulators to support technological innovation, cultural development, environmental protection, and rural development. Our findings suggest that these emerging financial services are effective in increasing the income and consumption levels of rural residents. Interestingly, while emerging financial services that directly target rural development have no significant impact on rural residents' income and consumption, financial support for technological advancement and cultural development appears to be more effective in increasing rural residents' income and consumption.     

The role of public pensions in income inequality among elderly households in China 1988–2013

Using data from the Chinese Household Income Project surveys for 1988, 1995, 2002 and 2013, we investigate the role of public pensions in income inequality among households with elderly members across two decades of pension policy reforms. We examine the distribution and role of public pensions at a national level and analyse the evolution of the contribution of public pensions to national income inequality across a much more extended time period than earlier studies, which have generally focused on regional changes over short periods. Our findings suggest that public pensions have become the most important source of income for households with elderly members on average in China, but the distribution of pension income is highly unequal, with a Gini coefficient of 0.74 in 2013. Public pension income has been the largest source of income inequality for elderly households since 2002 and contributed to more than half of total income inequality in the most recent year of the survey. This finding is robust against variations in the income inequality measures used. Additionally, our analysis suggests unequal distribution of pension benefits is the primary driver of pensioners' income inequality. Among several hypothetical policy changes, ensuring a minimum pension benefit for all existing pensioners seems to be the most fiscally effective option in reducing income inequality, with a 0.8% reduction in the Gini coefficient for a 1% increase in public pension expenditure.     

破除农民工低学历高收入的认识误区和实践藩篱

文章以破除"农民工低学历高收入"的认识误区为逻辑起点,详细剖析了农民工特别是从事建筑、装修等工种的农民工所谓的"高收入"是由长劳动时间、高劳动强度、高劳动风险和牺牲发展前途为代价换来的,其小时工资并不比社会其他行业同层次人员高。在此基础上,实证分析了农民工收入与其受教育程度的正相关性;从正反两方面确立了关于农民工教育和收入问题上的价值评价标准和价值导向;最后,从切实提高农村义务教育质量、真正发挥职业教育在农村人才培养的作用、优化职业教育专业结构和课程设置、切实提高农民工接受职业培训机会和效果四个方面提出了提高农民工教育程度和收入水平的实践举措。     

Rates of return to education and income distribution

Summary This paper examines the relationship between rate of return to education and income distribution with the help of cross-nation data on 30 developing and developed countries. The results indicate that the higher income groups in the society benefit the higher the rate of return to any level of education, and the bottom 40 percent and the middle 40 percent income groups lose; and the disadvantage for the poor income groups is the least at the primary level of education. As higher rates of return to education suggest higher levels of income inequalities, rapid expansion of the education system may reduce income inequalities through decline in rates of return to education. Secondly, it is also argued here that since high income groups benefit from all levels of education, education investments targeted specifically towards the poor may be preferred to overall investment in education.The author is Consultant, the World Bank, Washington D.C., 20433 (USA), while on leave from the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi. The incisive comments of George Psacharopoulos, Rati Ram, and the Editor(s) of this Journal on earlier versions of this study are gratefully acknowledged. However, the views expressed here and the errors that remain are the responsibility of the author alone and should not necessarily be attributed to anyone else, including the World Bank.     

我国上市银行内部薪酬差距对绩效影响的实证分析

本文以14家上市银行的2008年年报数据为基础,结合当前形势政策,对高管之间的薪酬差距、高管与全体职工的人均薪酬差距和银行的绩效进行了相关性的实证分析。研究结果表明高管之间的薪酬差距对净资产收益率无显著影响,对每股收益有较小的正向影响,一定程度上支持了锦标理论;而高管与全体职工的人均薪酬差距对银行绩效有很强的负向影响,符合行为理论的假说。     

创新与收入不平等

文章运用1995-2014年中国省际面板数据,从部门内和部门间两个视角,考察总体创新和产业创新水平对收入不平等的影响。实证结果表明不同类型的创新活动对收入不平等产生了不同影响：对于城镇居民收入不平等,总体创新水平和高新技术创新水平具有显著的扩大作用,创新带来了不同收入阶层内部的分化;对于农村居民收入不平等,农业创新水平具有显著的缩小作用,显示出农业创新对农民增收的积极作用;对于城乡收入差距,总体创新水平和农业创新水平具有缩小作用,而高新技术产业创新水平具有显著扩大作用。不仅如此,由于城乡收入差距存在显著的正向空间自相关,总体创新和高新技术产业创新对相邻地区城乡收入差距有显著的扩大作用。     

Inequality of opportunity and income inequality in nine Chinese provinces, 1989–2006

While there is a large and growing body of research describing and analyzing changes in the Chinese income distribution, researchers have paid considerable less attention to inequality of opportunity. The aim of this paper is to contribute to filling this gap in the literature. The two main questions addressed empirically for the first time in a Chinese context are: to what extent are individuals’ incomes and individual income differences due to factors beyond the individual's control (in Roemer's terminology “circumstances”) and to what extent are they due to outcomes of the individual's own choices (“effort”). What is the relationship between income inequality and inequality of opportunity?For this purpose we use data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey collected from nine provinces during the period 1989 to 2006. The CHNS has detailed information about incomes and other factors enabling us to construct a host of circumstance and effort variables for the offspring.We find that China has a substantial degree of inequality of opportunity. Parental income and parents' type of employer explain about two thirds of the total inequality of opportunity. Notably, parental education plays only a minor role implying that parental connections remain important. The results show that the increase in income inequality during the period under study largely mirrors the increase in inequality of opportunity. Thus, increased income inequality does not reflect changes in effort variables, or expressed differently, increased income inequality has not been accompanied by a decrease in inequality of opportunity.