The Political Economy of Tourism in Cambodia

This paper provides an overview of the historical development of the Cambodian political economy and the role of tourism in shaping it since the early 1990s when Cambodia opened its door to the world. The paper provides a general overview of tourism products and the government's policies in tourism development in Cambodia and then examines the perceived impacts of tourism on socio-economic development. It is argued that tourism plays an important role in socio-economic development and national identity promotion, but that proper management of tourism is required to control the spread of HIV/AIDS and child sex tourism.     

Tourism in Malaysia competing needs in a plural society

Tourism development in Malaysia is constrained by certain socioeconomic and political factors which require planning considerations beyond the traditional concerns for growth and promotion. Apart from the New Economic Policy which calls for racial-spatial economic restructuring and indigenization of control, tourism development in Malaysia requires reconciliation with the less than liberal religious and cultural orientations of the populace. This paper presents an overview of the socioeconomic impacts of tourism with particular reference to the role of ethnicity in the development of the tourist industry.     

Tourism and the Sex Trade in Kenya’s Coastal Region

Faced with economic hardships, some Kenyans have devised various ways of survival including selling sex. This paper examines the relationship between tourism and the sex trade in Kenya’s coastal region. A questionnaire survey was conducted among commercial sex workers in the region in 2002. Analyses of the survey data reveal that a linkage exists between tourism and the growth of the sex trade in the region. The paper examines the interrelations between the two activities, and gives the first detailed and systematic treatment of the subject in Kenya. A complex operational interdependence between commercial sex workers and tourism is revealed. The conclusion discusses the role of sustainable tourism concepts in any drive to reduce the harmful impacts of sex tourism in the region.     

Corporate Environmentalism in the Hotel Sector: Evidence of Drivers and Barriers in Penang,Malaysia

The linking of tourism businesses and their environmental impacts may be obscured by tourism's image as a ‘soft’ industry. This may explain why there are few studies of the drivers and barriers involved in corporate environmentalism, particularly within the context of developing countries where tourism is often a major foreign exchange earner. This paper narrows this gap by providing evidence about the drivers of and the barriers to corporate environmentalism in the hotel sector of Penang, Malaysia. Using qualitative data obtained via elite interviewing, document analysis and personal observation, the paper discusses the theoretical drivers of and barriers to corporate environmentalism in the study context. The findings indicate that without the introduction of more and stronger drivers, and without understanding and addressing the underlying barriers, instilling a sense of environmental responsibility in the hotel sector in Malaysia, as in other developing countries, may prove daunting.     

Assessing the environmental impacts of mega sporting events: Two options?

At a time when public and private agencies recognise the importance of sustainable development, the environmental impacts of mega sporting events are commanding increasing attention. However, despite event sponsors often flagging the importance of environmental as well as socio-economic legacy components, the environmental impacts of events are difficult to assess quantitatively, being complex and often occurring over extended periods. The general assessment issue is particularly acute with regard to mega events such as the Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup. The practical issues mean that any quantitative techniques seeking to assess environmental impacts are likely to be partial in scope. This paper examines two such approaches for quantitative impact assessment of selected environmental externalities connected with visitation at sporting events. The paper considers the use of Ecological Footprint analysis and Environmental Input–Output modelling. It provides examples of the applications of these techniques to discrete sporting events in a UK region, and discusses whether these techniques are appropriate for exploring the environmental impacts of mega events.     

Tourists and refugees: Coinciding Sociocultural Impacts

The new millennium holds promise of being both the “Century of Tourism” and the “Century of the Refugee.” Never in history have there been so many refugees and tourists crossing international borders. This paper discusses the ironic similarities of both positive and negative impacts of tourism development and refugee relief on developing countries. Parallels in recommendations for both phenomena are also presented. Although not originally intended, the observations made in the paper are drawn from two different fieldwork projects: a study of refugee camp aid with Operation Lifeline Sudan in northern Kenya in 1994 and an investigation of tourism development in Malaysia in 1992.     

Sustainability performance assessment focusing on coral reef protection by the tourism industry in the Coral Triangle region

Coral reef based tourism in the Coral Triangle region is responsible for economic benefits but also for negative social and environmental impacts, thus an approach to evaluate this industry's sustainability performance would be valuable. We selected 10 key indicators, out of 681, that were directly relevant to the impacts of tourist activities on coral reefs in economic, social, environmental, and wildlife aspects of sustainability. Efficiency, inefficiency and overall models were developed to measure relative sustainability performance focusing on coral reef protection by the tourism industry for all six countries in the Coral Triangle, from 2008 to 2012. Our results showed that Indonesia had the best relative performance among countries in the region, followed in descending order by; Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Philippines, Timor-Leste, and Solomon Islands. Future plans to achieve higher performance by the tourism industry in each country can be made if a comprehensive sensitivity analysis is carried out.     

Heritage Tourism in Rural Areas: Challenges for Improving Socio-economic Impacts

Many developing countries seek to utilize cultural heritage sites as resources for socio-economic development through heritage tourism. When rural area is the context of heritage tourism, effort is needed to establish linkages between tourism and the local economy by addressing the following issues: lack of skilled human resources, capital, access to credits, and other assistance; leakages; and dominance of urban players. This paper examines the impacts of heritage tourism on rural livelihoods using Borobudur in Central Java, Indonesia, as the case study. Further, it proposes rural industry promotion as one of the ways to establishing better linkages to tourism.     

Institutional quality,political risk and tourism

This paper applies the gravity model to investigate the impacts of institutional quality coupled with political risks, distance, and socio-economic factors on tourist flow. We find that institutional quality and absence of conflict are driving factors in fostering tourism flows for both source and destination countries. Our findings suggest that institutional reform can help boost the economies of countries with low-quality institutions. While institutional change is a positive development in its own right, our results suggest that it can also have important additional economic benefits for countries that are highly dependent on tourism.     

Ethnic segmentation in leisure time activities in Estonia

This paper examines the differences between the leisure time activities of members of the minority and majority populations of Estonia. Because people only meet when they undertake similar activities, it is important for social cohesion to identify the kinds of activities that different ethnic groups engage in during their free time. The data for this study were obtained from the Estonian Time Use Surveys of 2000 and 2010. In this paper, we analyse rates of participation in various cultural events, entertainment activities, outdoor recreation and sport. Our analysis reveals important ethnic differences in almost all leisure activities that partly stem from the uneven distribution of minorities over settlement types. Less than half of the differences relate to socio-economic status and individual wealth. The rest of ethnic segmentation in leisure activities can be attributed to preferences, differential residential patterns of ethnic groups over Estonia’s regions and the feeling of being a stranger in leisure time places where other ethnic groups are already over-represented.     

A review of the IPCC Fifth Assessment and implications for tourism sector climate resilience and decarbonization

The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2013–2014 was the most comprehensive analysis of anthropogenic climate change, its impacts, and potential responses. It concluded that climate change is “unequivocal” and human activities are the dominant cause. Avoidance of “dangerous” climate change will require sustained substantial reductions of emissions by mid-century and that net emissions decrease to zero before 2100. This paper describes, reviews and explains the place of tourism in AR5 and AR5's relevance for tourism's future, including impacts, adaptation, vulnerabilities, and mitigation. Tourism's position in AR5 has strengthened, particularly with respect to the recognition of transboundary impacts, the sector's contribution to climate change and its mitigation requirements. Major regional knowledge gaps persist. A lack of understanding of the integrated impacts of climate change and the effectiveness of adaptation strategies potentially hinders the development of resilient tourism operations and destinations. Uncertainties regarding tourist response to climate change impacts and mitigation policy impede predictions of tourism demand. The implications of different decarbonization pathways for the future of international tourism represent a key knowledge gap. The limited response of key tourism organizations to AR5 contributes to the risks climate change poses to the sector.     

Malaysia's Tourism Development and Marketing

Abstract

Malaysia has proven itself as one of the most successful and fastest growing economies in Southeast Asia. Being one of the world's greatest undiscovered and unexplored countries, there exists a vast tourism development potential in Malaysia. The Malaysian government in recent years has placed unprecedented importance on the role of tourism in its economic development process. This article reviews recent developments in tourism development and marketing efforts in Malaysia.     

Residents' Perceptions Towards Sociocultural Impacts Induced by Internal Migration

The economic development brought about by tourism often induces migration to an emerging tourism region. A constructivist paradigm with semi-structured interviews was employed. This paper aims to interpret residents' social constructions towards the sociocultural impacts of tourism-induced internal labour migration in a Thai context. Western studies assume there are clear negative and positive impacts of tourism development. These sociocultural impacts of tourism in the Western literature are applicable in a Thai context. However, most previous studies on sociocultural impacts of tourism look from the outside but it is significant that nobody has looked from an inside Thai perspective. Local residents in Koh Samui attribute the majority of sociocultural impacts to labour migration from the Isan region of Thailand. This paper starts with an analysis of labour forces in Thailand, and how tourism and labour migration are interrelated. In addition, the ethnic identity of the Isan people is examined.     

Ecotourism in Bako National Park,Borneo: Visitors’ Perspectives on Environmental Impacts and their Management

Ecotourism potentially provides a sustainable approach to development in Malaysia. However, to realise this potential the adverse effects of visitor activity and associated infrastructure on the natural environment and the tourism experience must be identified to guide management actions and thus to sustain the resources on which ecotourism ultimately depends. This study, conducted in Bako National Park on the island of Borneo, reports one of the first efforts to identify the impacts of ecotourism in Malaysia from the perspective of visitors. Environmental conditions of greatest influence on visitors’ experiences included litter and biophysical conditions such as soil erosion and vegetation damage. These conditions were of greater concern to visitors than social conditions, such as the number of people. These results suggest that management efforts can be directed towards indicators of greatest concern such as litter, soil erosion and vegetation damage. The broad support given by those surveyed for a range of management actions provides managers with a choice of strategies to sustain ecotourism in Bako National Park. This study, with its sociopolitical approach, contributes to a greater understanding of the implications of the ecotourist experience for ecotourism management in Malaysia.     

Implementing sustainable tourism in Scotland: an interview

In China, sites categorised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites are commonly used as a means of economic regeneration through tourism development. This study is of a recent addition to the list, the diaolou (fortified tower houses) of Kaiping, Guangdong, in South China. This rural zone, characterised by past emigration and farming, is in the early stages of tourism development. The study, based on interviews and a survey, permits findings to be compared with other rural areas in China such as Hungcun and the Tangyue Arches of Bao Village in Anhui, and thus while similarities in attitudes are found, in Kaiping differences exist whereby tourism has been found to permit entrepreneurial activities while retaining an agricultural base as the “new tourism rich” employ others to continue farming. The work is contextualised within a model of evolving literature related to tourism impacts on communities. The paper explores a range of issues in sustainable tourism, including the use of tourism as a tool for social, economic and cultural development, holistic approaches to heritage tourism, and the development of glocalisation as a response to globalisation. It discusses differences in approach to heritage tourism, cultural change and commodification between western and Chinese scholars and society.     

Investigation on Visitors' Perceptions of Recreation Impacts in Sun Moon Lake National Scenic Area in Taiwan

This research attempts to understand the visitors' perceptions of the environmental impacts caused by six recreational activities by using Sun Moon Lake National Scenic Area in Taiwan. The six recreational activities were fishing, camping, trail use, swimming, biking and motorboating. It compared the visitors' perceptions of the recreation impacts before and after the environmental impact information was provided. The convenience sampling method was used during three weekends in August 2005. The results indicated that visitors in the study were aware of the environmental impacts caused by the six recreational activities. The most harmful activity among all was motorboating and the most harmless one was biking. In addition, different variables such as gender, age and preference influenced visitors' perceptions of the recreation impacts of different types of activity. Overall, after receiving the environmental information, the visitors' perceptions of all activities moved to being more harmful than their previous perceptions. This means the environmental impact information sheet given in the post-test did change the perception of recreational impacts. In general, visitors viewed their own activities as having fewer recreational impacts than non-participants, except for the boating activity.     

Ecotourism-related products and activities, and the economic sustainability of small and medium island chalets

Environment-related products and activities in the tourism industry are popular among visitors to Malaysia. Such is the case off the coast of East Peninsular Malaysia, where several coral islands offer various ecotourism activities. The present study examines the products and activities offered in the four islands and related issues on the economic sustainability of small and medium island chalets (SMICs). Through the multi-method approach, results show that island hopping and combination tours are the most popular products. Meanwhile, snorkeling, round-island trips, and diving are the most highlighted activities. These ecotourism-related activities are mainly due to the attractiveness of the environment, which has drawn large numbers of tourists to the chalets on these islands. SMICs established their businesses in the late 1990s on the back of growing confidence in the tourism industry in the 1980s. Visitors include almost equal numbers of both local and international tourists. SMICs’ product and activity development are highly correlated with environmental attractions, thus positively contributing to the economic sustainability of SMICs. The present study proposes that the most appropriate business model for SMICs would be that of a small local business community operating in the island. This model would help maintain the sustainability of the island-tourism sector.     

Golf-centered Development in Coastal Mediterranean Europe: A Soft Sustainability Test

Since the late 1980s, upmarket tourist and residential golf resorts, golf-centered development (GCD) henceforth, are spreading in the environmentally sensitive and already stressed coastal Mediterranean Europe. This paper examines, on a Mediterranean-wide level, whether and under what conditions GCD is (or might be) a sustainable local and regional development option. After reviewing the main features of GCD in coastal Mediterranean Europe, it conducts a soft sustainability test using a set of criteria that reflect the overarching quest to maintain the present and future integrity of local and regional socio-ecological systems. The criteria are assessed using primary and secondary information for coastal Mediterranean Europe complemented with international evidence where appropriate. The findings indicate that the principal criteria of resource maintenance and use efficiency, livelihood sufficiency and opportunity and intra- and intergenerational equity as well as the necessary conditions to achieve them may not always be satisfactorily met. A summative evaluation, guided by Aristotelian phronesis in balancing multiple goals under conditions of uncertainty, suggests that GCD engenders considerable risks to sustainable local and regional development in coastal Mediterranean Europe. Siting GCD should be embedded within cautious strategic regional planning that is multifunctional, collaborative and adaptive. In closing, the paper indicates future research directions.     

The effects of tourism on socio-cultural values

UNESCO, “The Effects Of Tourism On Socio-Cultural Values,” Annals Of Tourism Research, Vol. IV, No. 2, November/December 1976, pp. 74–105. It is generally argued that tourism can alleviate the present socio-economic difficulties in the less devloped countries. This literature search is a first analysis of European studies on international tourism and its economic and socio-cultural impacts on development. The search shows that, despite its recognized benefits, several negative consequences of tourism question the role that it can play in the socio-economic development of these countries. This UNESCO survey, to be couped with one by the World Bank, should facilitate a comprehensive study of the potentials of tourism.