CUTTING CARBON EMISSIONS AT A PROFIT (PART I): OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE UNITED STATES

This article identifies and corrects shortcomings in recent modeling studies on the economics of reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the United States. The major assessments of the Kyoto Protocol—by the U.S. Energy Information Administration, the Clinton White House Council of Economic Advisers, the U.S. Department of Energy Interlaboratory Working Group, and the Stanford Energy Modeling Forum—are found to be seriously incomplete. Each study omits one or several of four major cost-reducing policy options, resulting in cost estimates that are far too pessimistic.
In the present study, these shortcomings are overcome through the integrated evaluation of all major cost-cutting policy options within a coherent least-cost framework. Three domestic policies—a national carbon cap and permit trading program, productivity-enhancing market reforms and technology programs, and recycling of permit auction revenues into economically advantageous tax cuts—are combined with international emissions allowance trading.
This analysis shows that an integrated least-cost strategy for mitigating U.S. greenhouse gas emissions would produce an annual net output gain of roughly 0.4% of GDP in 2010 and about 0.9% of GDP in 2020. On a cumulative net present value basis, the United States would gain $250 billion by 2010 and $600 billion by 2020. International flexibility mechanisms (including emissions trading) are of only secondary significance in realizing these productivity, output, and welfare gains.     

UNIVERSITY TECHNOLOGY TRANSFERS: IMPACTS ON LOCAL AND U.S. ECONOMIES

In the past two decades, many universities have established Offices of Technology Transfer to increase the transfer rate of certain research innovations to the private sector. More recently, some of these offices have come under pressure to increase their performance and thereby stimulate local economies. This paper discusses various technology transfer methods and presents results of a survey of university Offices of Technology Transfer. Comparisons of these offices take into account size, focus, and differences in public and private universities' goals. The paper concludes by discussing potential pitfalls of technology transfer and of privatizing university research.     

“再工业化”背景下的中美制造业竞争力比较

本文以美国针对虚拟经济极端膨胀与实体经济弱化提出的“再工业化”为背景,以形象反映产业价值链特征的“微笑曲线”为基础,主要从制造业技术密集度分布格局、制造业与生产者服务业融合度的角度,依据中国“九五”时期、“十五”时期、“十一五”时期重点年份的中美投入产出表数据,对中美制造业发展程度进行对比分析,以寻求中国制造业产业升级、提升国际竞争力的路径。研究表明,从制造业技术密集度分布格局来看,中国趋于低端,美国制造业趋于高端且结构平衡稳定,但中国具备较大的发展潜力,两国差距正逐年缩小;从制造业与生产者服务业的融合度来看,中国制造业产业链在上下游与服务业的融合都与美国存在一定差距,尤其体现在科技研发方面。     

SEQUESTERING CARBON ON AGRICULTURAL LAND: SOCIAL COST AND IMPACTS ON TIMBER MARKETS

Planting trees to sequester carbon has broad political appeal. However, effects of a major tree planting program on the agricultural sector and on timber markets are unclear. This paper examines social costs of sequestering carbon in tree plantations on U.S. agricultural land and investigates harvesting's effects on timber prices and on private timber producers' welfare. The analysis links a model of the U.S. agricultural sector that includes the land base in major production areas with a model of the U.S. softwood economy. Using current data on planting, maintenance, and harvesting costs for tree plantations and carbon sequestration rates, the models estimate the price and welfare effects of alternative carbon sequestration goals. Results indicate a range of outcomes. Consumers pay higher prices for food as farmers divert land from crops to trees. However, wood products consumers gain from falling timber prices if the trees enter commercial markets. Agricultural producers and landowners gain from higher commodity prices, but private forest owners lose. Large tree planting programs imply that policymakers must compensate private commercial tree planting to prevent farmers from displacing present tree plantations.     

ILLICIT DRUG USE, ABSENTEEISM, AND EARNINGS AT SIX U.S. WORKSITES

Considerable national attention has focused recently on the adverse consequences of illicit drug use. While several studies estimate the relationship between illicit drug use and wages, the findings are inconsistent. Surprisingly, some researchers identify a positive and statistically significant relationship between wages and drug use for young adults. Motivated by this counter-intuitive finding, this paper compiles unique data on employees at six worksites in order to explore the relationships among drug use, wages, and absenteeism. Using various measures of current and lifetime drug use and accounting for alcohol-use comorbidity, the authors find predominantly insignificant relationships (both direct and indirect) between drug use and both wages and absenteeism, regardless of gender.     

A NEW LOOK AT THE WEALTH ADEQUACY OF OLDER U.S. HOUSEHOLDS

We examine the current wealth adequacy of older U.S. households using the 1998–2006 waves of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). We find that the median older U.S. household is reasonably well situated, with a ratio of comprehensive net wealth to present value poverty‐line wealth of about 3.9 in 2006. About 18 percent of households, however, have less wealth than would be needed to generate 150 percent of poverty‐line income over their expected future lifetimes. We see similar patterns of wealth adequacy when we examine ratios of annualized comprehensive wealth to pre‐retirement earnings. Comparing the leading edge of the baby boomers in 2006 to households of the same age in 1998, we find that the baby boomers show slightly less wealth, in real terms, than their elders did, but still appear to have adequate resources at the median. Moreover, we find a rising age profile of annualized wealth, even within households over time and after controlling for other factors, suggesting that older households are not spending their wealth as quickly as their survival probabilities are falling.     

HOUSING WEALTH AND U.S. MONEY DEMAND: A PANEL ESTIMATION

This article estimates a panel model for U.S. money demand using annual state‐level data for the period from 1977 to 2008. We incorporate housing wealth in the demand‐for‐money function and find strong evidence of a relationship between a broad monetary aggregate and housing wealth. This finding is robust to the inclusion of variables measuring financial heterogeneity across U.S. regions. Breaking up the sample in two subperiods shows that panel estimates including housing wealth yield more stable coefficients than both time‐series estimates and panel estimates excluding housing wealth. We also show that the link between money and housing wealth predates the recent boom‐and‐bust cycle. (JEL E41, E52)     

THE EFFECTS OF U.S.-CHINA TRADE ON EMPLOYMENT AND WAGES IN THE U.S.-MEXICO BORDER REGION

This article investigates the impact of foreign competition from China on employment and wages in four U.S.-Mexico Border counties: Santa Cruz, Arizona; San Diego, California; El Paso, Texas; and Webb, Texas. Using disaggregated industry-level data between 1992 and 2006, we find that increased trade with China is associated with significantly lower county-industry employment and wages. In contrast, and as expected, increased imports from Mexico are positively related to increased employment and wages in U.S.-Mexico border counties. The results indicate that the U.S.-Mexico supply-chain relationship related to the maquiladora industry is significantly affected by Chinese competition. Implications for policy include an increased focus on federal programs that are intended to diversify the border economy . ( JEL F13, F43, F23)     

中国商业银行竞争力及影响因素分析:2002—2009年

本文选取中国14家上市商业银行作为研究对象,利用2002—2009年的数据,通过定义社会生产效率、服务效率、盈利效率和成长效率,研究中国银行业的整体效率、效率值动态变化和各银行的效率情况。结果表明,四大国有控股商业银行与一般股份制银行和城市商业银行相比,其社会生产效率、盈利效率过低,但如果将投入变量中的员工数目换为工资薪酬,国有控股商业银行的效率则有很大提升;股权结构会影响效率值,但国有股与效率值不一定负相关,而外资股和效率值正相关,只对于生产效率成立,对于服务效率和盈利效率刚好相反。     

中美日三国经济增长质量比较:基于技术进步的角度

本文通过构造一个包含资本质量的柯布-道格拉斯形式的总量生产函数,对中美日三国1980—2007年的经济增长质量进行了详细的分析。分析结果表明,在整个考察期内,不同要素对于不同国家的经济发展所发挥的作用是不同的。但是,从总体上来看,全要素生产率的发展在三个国家的经济发展过程中均占据了非常重要的地位。同时,体现在资本质量上的技术进步对于不同国家则有不同的影响。尤其是对于日本经济而言,资本质量对日本经济发展发挥了关键性的作用,日本经济的资本质量状况长期阻碍了日本经济的发展,这一点能够为日本经济自20世纪90年代以来的长期低迷提供一种可能的解释。为了进一步分析三国的技术进步与经济增长之间的关系,本文同时又将整个考察期划分为三个子时期,并对三个子时期内不同要素对各个国家的经济发展贡献程度进行了考察,分析结果进一步确认了前面的结论。     

ECONOMIC FREEDOM AND GROWTH IN U.S. STATE‐LEVEL MARKET INCOMES AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM

This paper investigates the relationship between economic freedom and income growth and inequality across U.S. states over the period 1979–2011. The focus is on market income at the top and bottom of the income distribution. Results show that increases in overall freedom are associated with average income growth. When viewed separately, an increase in overall freedom is associated with larger income growth rates for income earners in the bottom 90% relative to the top 10%. Interestingly, results show that increases in overall economic freedom are related to larger relative growth rates for the top 10% incomes within high‐income states and larger relative growth rates for the bottom 90% incomes within low‐income states. Top‐to‐bottom income ratio regressions suggest a negative and statistically significant relationship between economic freedom and income inequality. (JEL D63, P16, R11)     

市价调整与美国次贷危机:一个理论述评

针对美国次贷危机及其引发的金融危机,美国和欧洲金融界某些银行家们将矛头指向公允价值会计准则,把危机的原因归咎于按市价调整(mark-to-market)会计计量方法,引起世界各国对公允价值会计评价的轩然大波。相对于历史成本计量而言,按市价调整的会计计量是计量衍生产品等金融工具最具透明性的方法,按市价调整的会计处理和披露为投资者提供了当前市场情况和远期分析等信息,其本身并不会带来任何损失。     

VALUE OF LIFE AND INJURY: EVIDENCE FROM A U.S. FISHERY

Here, revealed trade‐offs between monetary rewards and safety risk for shrimp fishermen in the Gulf of Mexico are investigated. Shrimp harvesting is one of the most dangerous occupations in the United States with an occupational fatality rate significantly above the average. The instrumental variables method is employed for estimation of the injuries and fatalities. My estimates of the value of a statistical life and the value of statistical injury, using the sample selection model, are in line with the estimates from other industries and provide useful information for public policy. (JEL J17, Q2, K2, D2)     

TROPICS AND INCOME: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE U.S. STATES

A simple regression of personal income per capita for the U.S. states is estimated from cross-section data for the years 1929, 1950, 1970 and 1990 with each state's distance from the equator as the regressor. While proximity to the equator is noted to have a sizable adverse effect on income, elasticity of personal income per capita with respect to "tropicality" shows a steady and somewhat dramatic decline during this 60-year period. The estimates indicate that the disadvantage of tropicality is not immutable, and need not imply a developmental determinism.     

DRIFTING APART: CANADIAN AND U.S. LABOR MARKETS

Canadian and U.S. unemployment rates moved together within a narrow margin from 1961 to the mid-1970s. Since then, Canadian rates have exceeded U.S. rates by large margins—at times as much as 3 percentage points. Throughout this period, interest rates in the two countries have been nearly identical. Aggregate demand stimulation by government deficits has been greater in Canada than in the U.S., and the trade surplus in Canada has added to demand while the trade deficit in the U.S. has subtracted from demand. Therefore, it seems that conventional Keynesian arguments cannot explain the recent differences in unemployment rates.
Differences in labor market developments, however, can do so. During a period when real wages rose 35 percent in Canada, they fell 5 percent in the U.S. Since the recession of 1981, U.S. wages have dropped while Canadian wages have remained constant. Differences in labor productivity do not account for these developments. A strong case exists for the argument that the different paths of unemployment rates are due to different paths of real wage developments.
It is argued that the causes for these differences in labor market conditions are associated with substantial growth and decreases in unionization rates in Canada and the U.S., respectively. In addition, the unemployment insurance system in Canada is shown to be considerably more generous than that in the U.S.     

INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION AND U.S. R&D SUBSIDIES: A QUANTITATIVE WELFARE ANALYSIS*

In the early 1970s U.S. firms were the uncontested world leaders in R&D investment in most manufacturing sectors. Later, led by Japan and Europe, foreign firms began to challenge American R&D leadership in many sectors of the economy. This period of increasing technological competition is contemporaneous with a substantial increase in U.S. R&D subsidies. What is the effect of the observed increase in international competition on U.S. welfare? How does foreign competition affect the optimal R&D subsidy in the United States, and, consequently, how far is this from the subsidy observed in the data? This article addresses these questions in a two‐country quality ladder growth model.     

U.S. IMMIGRATION REFORM: POLICY ISSUES AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

In recent years, legal U. S. immigration has approached historically high levels, and illegal immigration has been thought to be high and perhaps rising. Consequently, the Select Commission on Immigration and Refugee Policy proposed sweeping changes in the nation's immigration laws. During 1984, both the Senate and House passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act (Simpson-Mazzoli Bill). This bill subsequently died in the conference committee that was established to reconcile differences between the bill's two versions. The proposed act has three major provisions: (1) control of illegal immigration, (2) legalization of alienstatus, and (3) reform of legal immigration. Both the House and Senate versions would maintain the present orientation of U.S. immigration policy toward family reunification, but the Senate proposed significant changes in legal immigration restrictions that would shift policy slightly more toward labor considerations. These proposed changes were eliminated in the compromise made in the conference committee. Employer sanctions and legalization of illegal aliens were left as the two most prominent alterations to existing policy. During 1985, the 99th Congress is likely to reconsider the Simpson-Mazzoli Bill, perhaps in a streamlined version which emphasizes employer sanctions, legalization, and a substantial increase in border enforcement.     

WEALTH INEQUALITY AND HOUSEHOLD STRUCTURE: U.S. VS. SPAIN

We study the link between culturally inherited household structure and wealth distribution in international comparisons using household data for the U.S. and Spain (the SCF and the EFF). We estimate counterfactual U.S. distributions relying on the Spanish household structure. Our results show that differences in household structure account for most of the differences in the lower part of the distribution between the two countries, but mask even larger differences in the upper part of the distribution. Imposing the Spanish household structure to the U.S. wealth distribution has little effect on the Gini coefficient and wealth top shares. However, this is the net result of reduced differences at the bottom and increased differences at the top. So there is distinct additional information in considering the whole distribution. Finally, we present results for the within‐group differences between the two countries using quantile regressions and find a reversing pattern by age.