Using best–worst scaling to explore perceptions of relative responsibility for ensuring food safety

We examine stakeholders’ perceptions of the share of the overall responsibility of each stage in the food supply chain has in ensuring that the meat people cook and eat at home is safe to consume. We elicit these perceptions of relative responsibility via surveys using the best–worst scaling technique and analyse the data via Bayesian estimation of mixed logit models. Results are reported for two groups of stakeholders: consumers and farmers, and for two meat food chains: chicken and beef. The results reveal that consumers tend to think farmers are more responsible for ensuring meat safety than farmers do. Similarly, farmers tend to think consumers have a greater degree of responsibility than consumers believe they have themselves. Such beliefs might affect stakeholders’ willingness to take actions and reduce hazards in the supply chain. From a policy perspective, the research findings provide useful insights to support policymakers and other decision-makers in the industry in developing mitigation strategies. Communication with consumers and farmers about emerging food safety problems in a supply chain and their involvement in proactive practices would need to be attuned to their subjective perceptions of relative responsibilities in order for integrated risk management systems to be effective.     

Supplying vegetables to Asian cities: is there a case for peri-urban production?

In this paper, we analyse the dynamic interplay between peri-urban vegetable producers and their changing production and marketing environments in Asia, using examples from urban conglomerates in South, Southeast and East Asia. We discuss income generation, labour use, management of land and water resources, use of urban and market waste materials and health and food safety aspects. We conclude that peri-urban vegetable production, even though currently economically viable, is unlikely to be able to compete in the long run for scarce land and labour resources, unless alternative production technologies become available and the positive externalities generated by peri-urban agriculture become internalised. There is thus an urgent need for interdisciplinary research aimed at developing such technologies as well as for integrated economic and environmental analyses that take explicit account of interactions between peri-urban producers, the urban waste management sector, municipal planners and consumers.     

How many bad apples are in a bunch? An experimental investigation of perceived pesticide residue risks

Subjective risks of having contaminated apples elicited via the Exchangeability Method (EM) are examined in this study. In particular, as the experimental design allows us to investigate the validity of elicited risk measures, we examine the magnitude of differences between valid and invalid observations. In addition, using an econometric model, we also explore the effect of consumers’ socioeconomic status and attitudes toward food safety on subjects’ perceptions of pesticide residues in apples. Results suggest first, that consumers do not expect an increase in the number of apples containing only one pesticide residue, but, rather, in the number of those apples with traces of multiple residues. Second, we find that valid subjective risk measures do not significantly diverge from invalid ones, indicative of little effect of internal validity on the actual magnitude of subjective risks. Finally, we show that subjective risks depend on age, education, a subject’s ties to the apple industry, and consumer association membership.     

An industry viewpoint on the role of farm assurance in delivering food safety to the consumer: The case of the dairy sector of England and Wales

Food safety, alongside food quality, remains a primary concern of both consumers and those along the whole food supply chain, leading to regulation by government alongside private third party certification. Much has been written about the value of these systems primarily from the perception of the consumer. This paper reports on a study that examined industry perceptions on the regulatory and assurance systems within the dairy sector of England and Wales. It found that the primary producer found value in both systems, although from a food hygiene focus regulation was seen to be more rigorous. Other stakeholders along the dairy food supply chain saw the assurance scheme as more rigorous. All stakeholders recognised the need to reduce duplication in delivering food safety through combining key elements of both systems with the added potential for better communication of both food safety and quality to the final consumer.     

An empirical analysis of supply chain risk management in the German automotive industry

The purpose of this paper is the empirical analysis of supply chain risk management practices. The analysis is based on a survey with 67 manufacturing plants conducted in the German automotive industry. After investigating the vulnerability of supply chains in general and examining key drivers of supply chain risks, the paper identifies supply chain risks by analyzing their likelihood to occur and their potential impact on the supply chain. The results are visualized in the probability-impact-matrix distinguishing between internal and external supply chain risks. Furthermore, instruments for dealing with supply chain risks are investigated. Therefore, the impact of supply chain risk management on performance is tested. In order to distinguish between companies with a high degree of supply chain risk management and those with no or only limited implementation the plants are grouped by means of a cluster analysis based on factors reflecting the instruments of supply chain risk management. In particular, groups are created representing two different approaches to deal with supply chain risks, i.e. reactive and preventive supply chain risk management. The clusters are investigated concerning differences in terms of performance criteria. The analyses reveal that companies with a high implementation degree show a better supply chain performance. Furthermore, the results show that the group using reactive supply chain risk management has higher average value in terms of disruptions resilience or the reduction of the bullwhip effect, whereas the group pursuing preventive supply chain risk management has better values concerning flexibility or safety stocks.     

The implementation mechanisms of voluntary food safety systems

The recent food scares have been the motivation for voluntary programmes on food safety being promoted by public authorities and voluntarily implemented by food operators. In this article, we take into account the nature of the contamination risk to investigate the complementarities between private and public mechanisms for those voluntary systems to be implemented by a firm. We show two main results. First, when the firm directly markets its products to consumers a strong mandatory threat is a sufficient condition to implement voluntary systems whatever the risk of contamination. In contrast, when the mandatory threat is weak voluntary systems should be more implemented in industries where the risk of food contamination is low (pesticide residue) than in industries where the risk of contamination is high (pathogenic contamination). Second, when the risk of food contamination is low and the firm is embedded in a supply chain where the retailer can impose its own safety system, a well-designed penalty contract will induce a voluntary implementation whatever the mandatory threat.     

Sequential price and quantity decisions under supply and demand risks

Firms need to deal with not only risks from stochastic demand but also risks from supply side. The supply side risk may be due to parts/service outsourcing, third party logistics, or random yield in production processes. In this paper, we study how firms sequentially make price and quantity decisions under these two risks. The first question we try to answer is how these two risks affect the decisions and profits of the firm. We find that increased supply risk usually causes increased quantity/stocking decision, however, there exists a threshold level of supply risk above which the firm reduces quantity/stocking amount as supply risk increases. This observation may be used in a supply chain setting, where reduction of the supply risk can cause higher delivered quantity and improve supply chain performance. This observation also provides support and insights on prioritizing the risk reduction efforts from marketing and operations to achieve better coordination. At the same time, reduction of the risks help not only firms but also consumers as the optimal price decreases. To further improve decision making process under both uncertainties, we study the impact from information revelation and postponement of decisions. We compare results from different sequential decision making cases. As illustrated in the paper, firms gain competing advantage when decision postponement is available and this advantage becomes further significant as the risks increase. Our numerical examples also indicate that price postponement strategy is usually preferred but the relative profit difference between price postponement and quantity postponement become smaller as consumers become more sensitive to the price.     

Will they buy it? The potential for marketing organic vegetables in the food vending sector to strengthen vegetable safety: A choice experiment study in three West African cities

Considering the hazardous use of synthetic pesticides in vegetable production in urban West Africa, this research investigated the marketing potential of organic vegetables in the food vending sector of Cotonou (Benin), Accra (Ghana) and Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Certified organic production and marketing was examined as a potential strategy to improve chemical food safety. A stratified random sampling strategy was applied to study the preferences of food vendors (n = 180) and consumers (n = 360); vegetable use, risk perception, choice preferences and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for organic certification were specifically analyzed. The results showed that awareness of chemical contamination risks was generally low. Appearance of a product was central to vendor choice; consumers attributed similar utility to taste and organic certification. Consumer WTP was calculated to be a premium of 1.04 USD (per plate) if the food served contained only certified organic vegetables. In restaurants, this would mean an average premium of 19% for a meal. If certified organic vegetable production is to make a positive impact on food safety in urban West Africa, we suggest concentrating marketing efforts on the educated “elite” who frequent restaurants. However, considering that restaurant owners exhibited a lower preference for organic certification than lower class food vendors, the marketing situation is difficult. We therefore conclude that demand from the food vending sector alone will not institutionalize domestic certification mechanisms; this underlines the need for public commitment to facilitating such change.     

Good governance? Perceptions of accountability,transparency and effectiveness in Irish food risk governance

In an attempt to govern increasingly globalised, industrialised and risky food chains, food safety authorities (FSAs) have been established worldwide as part of a catalogue of food risk governance reforms undertaken in response to continuing food crises. Despite these significant shifts in governing arrangements however, little work has been conducted regarding how consumers respond to, resist and/or engage with these new governance systems in everyday, non-crisis contexts. As such, this paper explores the everyday governance of food risk from the perspective of those whose voices typically go unheard in food policymaking processes – consumers. Drawing on empirical results from focus groups conducted with publics across the Republic of Ireland, consumer perceptions, priorities and lived experiences relating to food risk governance, and the Food Safety Authority of Ireland (FSAI) in particular, are explored. This analysis is couched within a normative frame of multi-scalar governance and what makes it ‘good’ or effective. Accordingly, the paper advances food risk policy debates through a lens of normative good food risk governance, including analysis of the perceived accountability, transparency and effectiveness of Irish food risk governing structures from a consumer perspective. Identifying limitations in current governing regimes, the paper concludes by critically reflecting on the opportunities and challenges for adopting more adaptive forms of governance in the multi-scalar and evolving policy context that typifies food risk.     

Chinese consumer demand for food safety attributes in milk products

Little is known about emerging demands for food safety among consumers in developing countries. This study presents results of an investigation of consumer awareness, willingness to pay, and price premiums for milk products manufactured using Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) management, a quality management system used to reduce food safety risks. Chinese food processors initially sought HACCP certification to access export markets, but now HACCP is rapidly being adopted for domestic products and HACCP logos have begun to appear on labels in China. A survey of Beijing consumers found that less than one in five respondents was aware of HACCP, and most who had heard of HACCP had learned about it within the previous year. After receiving information on HACCP nearly all respondents were willing to pay a modest price premium for HACCP-certified products. Products with HACCP labels in Beijing supermarkets sold at a price premium of about 5% over products without such labels, holding other product attributes constant. The results indicate that demand for food safety is emerging as an attribute demanded by Chinese consumers.     

Consumers’ willingness-to-pay for food safety labels in an emerging market: The case of fresh produce in Thailand

Food safety systems in emerging markets are currently facing a transformation period, becoming more stringent because of an increasing demand for safer food. Consequently, policy makers need to find strategies to increase food safety while giving the industry time to improve their performance. In Thailand, policy makers have adopted the strategy of upgrading food safety standards gradually. Government and private food safety brands and labels were introduced onto the market but little is known whether Thai consumers have preferences for them or not. This study is aimed at evaluating Thai consumers’ preferences for food safety labels and brands on fresh produce, using a surveyed based on discrete-choice experiments. A sample of 350 Thai consumers was surveyed in Bangkok and Nonthaburi in 2013. Quota sampling according to the shopping outlets and convenience sampling methods were adopted. Two hundred respondents were recruited at fresh-food markets and 150 respondents were recruited at supermarkets. We found that consumers are willing-to-pay more for both government led food safety label and private brands, but that there is high heterogeneity in their preferences. The high degree of social desirability for food safety labels confirms that food safety labelling policy should be supported. However, the provision of information and credibility are vital in order to mitigate the risk of consumer deception by self-claimed labels.     

Consumer perceptions of best practice in food risk communication and management: Implications for risk analysis policy

As a consequence of recent food safety incidents, consumer trust in European food safety management has diminished. A risk governance framework that formally institutes stakeholder (including consumer) consultation and dialogue through a transparent and accountable process has been proposed, with due emphasis on risk communication. This paper delivers actionable policy recommendations based on consumer preferences for different approaches to food risk management. These results suggest that risk communication should be informed by knowledge of consumer risk perceptions and information needs, including individual differences in consumer preferences and requirements, and differences in these relating to socio-historical context associated with regulation. In addition, information about what is being done to identify, prevent and manage food risks needs to be communicated to consumers, together with consistent messages regarding preventative programs, enforcement systems, and scientific uncertainty and variability associated with risk assessments. Cross-cultural differences in consumer perception and information preferences suggest a national or regional strategy for food risk communication may be more effective than one applied at a pan-European level.     

论我国粮食安全风险及其管控

新形势下我国粮食供给充裕,粮食安全有保障.但是,我国粮食不安全风险也不容忽视.放松粮食工作、推卸粮食安全责任、滥占耕地和良田、极端灾害天气、粮食比较效益偏低、过度和不当利用粮食生产资源、大规模进口粮食,都是粮食不安全风险源,需要按照中央部署,加强风险管控,将新形势下国家粮食安全保障措施落实到位.     

Zero-tolerance for genetic pollution: Rice farming,pharm rice,and the risks of coexistence in California

California’s Rice Certification Act (RCA) requires specific planting and handling protocols for rice, including genetically engineered (GE) rice that could pose commercial risks to rice growers. Based on interviews with growers, marketers, activists, and other stakeholders, as well as secondary sources, this paper describes this policy’s emergence and evolution using a global commodity chain approach. Several studies suggest that GE herbicide tolerant rice would yield profits for California growers struggling with rising weed control costs. Instead, GE rice was greeted with scrutiny by the California industry and legislators because Asian export markets had zero-tolerance for GE rice contamination. This paper examines how nature’s agency—the “unruly” qualities of agro-ecosystem functions, the movement of wildlife, seeds, and pollen across space—strengthened narratives about risk and industry consensus around zero-tolerance rules for GE rice. In addition to recounting the origins of zero-tolerance demands and containment regulations for California rice, this research explores how calls for food safety and zero-tolerance rules are mobilized as surrogate for wider political economic aims.     

Export restrictions – Do consumers really benefit? The wheat-to-bread supply chain in Serbia

Our approach combines price transmission and gross margin analysis at different stages of the wheat-to-bread supply chain. Results suggest that the effects of export restrictions on the end consumer prices for bread, and thus food price inflation, heavily depend on the price behavior of the intermediates. In contrast to theory, consumers in Serbia experienced welfare losses despite comprehensive governmental market interventions. In particular, consumers were confronted with increasing flour and bread prices, which cannot be fully explained by increasing production costs, whereas mills, bakeries and retailers increased their profits. Thus, export controls in combination with high price volatility in the supply chain have to be considered as a further factor driving food price inflation.     

Consumers’ valuation for food traceability in China: Does trust matter?

Food safety is a very important topic in China. We investigate Chinese consumers’ preferences and willingness to pay (WTP) for food traceability using a choice experiment. Given that consumers’ trust in the food system may affect their preferences and WTP, we also assess the interaction between consumers’ trust in government’s supervision of food safety and food labels and consumers’ preferences for traceable food products. Using data collected from a choice experiment on Fuji apples in a face-to-face survey in six Chinese cities, the results show that (i) consumers are willing to pay for traceable food but their valuations can differ upon the degree of their trust in government’s supervision of food safety and food labels; (ii) consumers are willing to pay for traceability with strong evidence of preference heterogeneity; (iii) government is not the most trusted safety inspection and certificate authority as found in prior studies using animal food products in China.     

Value of parsimonious nutritional information in a framed field experiment

This study investigates consumers’ beliefs about the tastiness and healthiness of 173 food items in a framed field experiment designed to mirror a grocery shopping environment. Using data collected from 129 food shoppers in Grenoble, France, demand models are estimated to determine how product choice is affected by price, taste, and perceived healthiness, and how choices change with the provision of objective health information. Unlike previous studies focusing on relatively complex nutrition labels, we elicit and convey health information using simple nutritional indices meant to lower search and cognitive processing costs. The results indicate that consumers are willing to pay for tastier foods and for healthier foods, particularly if the consumers have objective information (as opposed to perceived, subjective information) on nutrient content. The estimates suggest that the value of the type of nutritional information provided in the experiment is €0.98 per day. The figure refers to the daily welfare benefits that arise from being able to make a set of choices that better reflect people’s preferences by receiving the nutrient index information on all 173 food items versus not having such information.     

Eating at the limits: Barriers to the emergence of social enterprise initiatives in the Australian emergency food relief sector

This article explores the absence of social enterprise responses to food insecurity in Australia. Continued growth in demand from chronically food insecure consumers and criticism of the dominant food bank model of gifted food support has led to the development of ‘community supermarkets’ that charge consumers for donated food in countries including Canada, the United Kingdom, France and Italy, but not in Australia. This research investigates barriers to the development of community supermarkets in Australia through in-depth interviews with senior staff within seven organizations involved in the food relief supply chain, as well as a pilot survey of 38 food insecure consumers. The results of this research are analyzed through the lens of ‘voluntary failure’ theory and highlight systemic barriers to the reach of social enterprise as a mechanism for addressing food insecurity.     

Market appeal in an emerging economy: Supermarkets and poor consumers in Vietnam

With the arrival and development of supermarkets, Vietnam is currently experiencing significant changes to its food system and more particularly the distribution system. The objective of this paper is to analyse the risks and benefits of this development to poor urban consumers in Vietnam. The analysis is based on surveys of food purchasing practices conducted in Hanoi from 2004 to 2006. It shows that poor consumers depend on a diversified network of formal and informal outlets to ensure food accessibility, credit opportunities and low prices. Poor consumers purchase very little from supermarkets due to material constraints (price, transport, etc.), although they have a high opinion of supermarkets and in particular the quality of the products sold. In order to be favourable to poor consumers, food distribution policies should aim to maintain the balance of the different forms of outlets and enforce public quality standards to guarantee the right of all to safe food.     

Quality certification vs. product traceability: Consumer preferences for informational attributes of pork in Georgia

Consumer willingness-to-pay for informational attributes of food products is important information for food producers and supply chain participants and policy makers. We examine consumer demand in the pork sector of the Republic of Georgia. Results of conditional and mixed logit estimation, conducted on choice experiment data, reveal that Georgian consumers treat quality certification and product traceability attributes as substitutes. We also find that producers and other supply chain participants should be concerned primarily with maintaining the appearance of pork products. Retailer specific factors such as location and type of outlet can also substitute for product traceability. Store location and product appearance, however, are complementary attributes. In light of the recent turbulence in Georgia these consideration may be of paramount importance as participants in the supply chain seek to rebuild damaged infrastructure.