Attitudes and Donation Behavior When Reading Positive and Negative Charity Appeals

This article tries to clarify whether negative charity appeals (i.e., advertisements emphasizing the bad consequences of not helping) or positive charity appeals (i.e., advertisements emphasizing the good consequences of helping) are more effective. Previous literature does not provide a single answer to this question and we suggest that one contributing reason for this is that different studies have operationalized appeal effectiveness in different ways (e.g., actual behavior, self-rated helping intentions, or expressed attitudes about the ad or the organization). Results from four separate studies suggest that positive appeals are more effective in inducing favorable attitudes toward the ad and toward the organization but that negative appeals are more effective (in studies 1A and 1B) or at least equally effective (in studies 1C and 1D) in eliciting actual donations. Also, although people’s attitude toward the appeal (i.e., liking) was a good predictor for the expected effectiveness in increasing donation behavior (in Study 2), it was a poor predictor of actual donation behavior in all four main studies. These results cast doubt on marketing theories suggesting that attitudes toward an advertisement and toward the brand always lead to higher purchase behavior.     

The Role of Beneficiaries’ Group Identity in Determining Successful Appeal Strategies for Charitable Giving

What types of message appeals in charity advertisements are most likely to convince people to donate? Using university rivalry (Studies 1 and 2), nationality (Study 3), and freely chosen groups (Study 4), this research proposes that the beneficiaries’ group identity moderates the relative effectiveness of three benefit foci of message appeals in charity advertisements. The results indicate that other‐benefit appeals produce greater donation intentions than external self‐benefit appeals for in‐group beneficiaries, whereas external self‐benefit appeals produce greater donation intentions than other‐benefit appeals for rival (Studies 1–3), dissociative (Study 4), and neutral (Study 4) out‐group beneficiaries. Emotional‐benefit appeals are more effective than external self‐benefit appeals for in‐group beneficiaries, and are more effective than other‐benefit appeals for neutral out‐group beneficiaries, whereas they are less effective than external self‐benefit appeals for dissociative out‐group beneficiaries (Study 4). Empathy and belief in personal benefits mediate the interaction effect of benefit focus and beneficiary group on donation intentions (Studies 3 and 4). Theoretical and managerial implications of the current findings are discussed.     

Guilt appeals: Persuasion knowledge and charitable giving

This paper applies the persuasion knowledge model to explain consumers' responses to charity guilt appeals. With data obtained through a stimuli‐driven survey, the research examines the relationships between knowledge of persuasion tactics and charities, and the level of felt guilt experienced in response to an advertisement and subsequent donation intentions. The findings show that guilt arousal is positively related to donation intention, and that persuasion and agent knowledge impact the extent of guilt aroused. The research confirms that consumers are active rather than passive processors of marketing communications by revealing the role of persuasion and agent knowledge as methods of coping with and informing responses to guilt appeals. Specifically, the research finds that manipulative intent and the respondents' skepticism toward advertising tactics in general are negatively related to guilt arousal but that their affective evaluation and beliefs about a charity are positively related to feelings of guilt. However, it also shows that there is a positive direct relationship between perceived manipulative intent and the intention to donate. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The Effects of Guilt-Appeal Intensity on Persuasive and Emotional Outcomes: The Moderating Role of Sponsor Motive

Studies examining the persuasive effects of guilt appeals have yielded mixed results. The current study hypothesizes that source motive (profit versus not for profit) is a key moderating variable underlying these inconsistences. A controlled experiment tested the moderating role of sponsor motive on the relationship between guilt-appeal intensity and persuasiveness of the appeal and ad liking. Findings confirmed the notion that sponsor motive moderates the effects of guilt appeals: When guilt appeals are commercially oriented there is a relative failure of high-intensity guilt appeals compared to moderate-intensity guilt appeals. Moderate-intensity guilt appeals cause more-positive brand attitudes than high-intensity appeals. Yet, when guilt appeals are nonprofit, increases in intensity of guilt communicated lead to positive results. As the guilt-intensity increased, ad liking and persuasiveness increased. It appears that guilt-appeal intensity did not have an effect on brand attitudes when the message was nonprofit.     

Guilt and giving: A process model of empathy and efficacy

This research develops a model of consumer response to charity appeals. Using the Extended Parallel Process Model from the fear appeal literature as a foundation, the current model proposes that empathy and self‐efficacy generate guilt and reduce maladaptive responses, which, in turn, shapes donation intention. The results demonstrate that the impact of empathy on charitable donation intention is fully mediated by guilt and maladaptive responses. The impact of self‐efficacy is partially mediated by guilt and maladaptive responses. Therefore, both empathy and self‐efficacy determine whether guilt or maladaptive responses result. This model clarifies the process through which guilt appeals operate, by identifying the roles of empathy and self‐efficacy. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Is sexy better than funny? Disentangling the persuasive effects of pleasure and arousal across sex and humour appeals

Although it is well known that sex and humour can help sell products, hardly any research has examined whether there is something particular about sexual advertisements that makes them more persuasive than other appeals. The present research proposed an empirically robust way to test the persuasiveness of different emotional appeals (sex, humour, control) by matching them on pleasure and arousal levels. Two experiments (N = 162; N = 301) examined the combined persuasive effects of different levels of pleasure (moderate, high) and arousal (moderate, high) for sexual and nonsexual appeals. Study 1 used a 3 (appeal: sexual, humorous, control) × 2 (pleasure level: moderate, high) between-subjects design. Study 2 employed a 2 (appeal: sexual, control) × 2 (arousal level: moderate, high) × 2 (pleasure level: moderate, high) design. The main dependent measures were attitudes towards the ad, attitudes towards the brand, and purchase intentions. The results showed that highly pleasant ads increased persuasion regardless of arousal and content, and that sexual appeals outperformed nonsexual appeals only under conditions of moderate pleasure and high arousal.     

Before–after appeals: a dual-route effect model

This paper compares the effects of before–after appeals with before-use appeals, also known as problem-focused appeals, and with after-use appeals, also known as outcome-focused appeals, to demonstrate two possible routes of influence that before–after appeals may trigger. First, the before–after appeals can prompt performance-based effect processes, which enhance perceptions of product performance and encourage improved behavioural intentions. Second, they can trigger emotion-based effect processes, which arouse anticipated happiness and anticipatory hope, as well as lead to favourable brand attitudes. Studies 1 and 2 confirm the proposed model; Study 3 shows that consumers' low product involvement triggers a performance-based effect process, whereas their high product involvement triggers emotion-based effect processes.     

Evaluating guilt arousing marketing communications

An empirical investigation was conducted to evaluate the impact of guilt arousing marketing communications. The results indicated that guilt as a distinct emotion can be aroused to the extent of changing message specific attitudes. However, it was not possible to change either global attitudes or behavioral intentions. One reason for the failure of guilt arousing marketing communications to affect global attitudes and behavioral intentions may be due to counterarguing on the part of message recipients.     

Doing good matters to consumers: the effectiveness of humane-oriented CSR appeals in cross-cultural standardized advertising campaigns

This investigation contributes to the advancement of international advertising theory by developing a model of cross-cultural consumer responses to humane-oriented corporate social responsibility (CSR) appeals in advertising and by testing it using structural equation modelling with data from six countries (Germany, Switzerland, Austria, France, USA, and Chile). The model includes ad-, advertiser-, product-, and behaviour-related variables.

Based on survey data from 924 subjects, the model received support in all six countries which suggests that humane orientation is a favourable cultural dimension for advertising purposes, even in countries in which humane orientation is less highly valued. The higher the perceived degree of humane orientation in an advertisement, the more positive was the evaluation of the ad, and the more likely subjects were to evaluate the advertiser as being socially responsible. These two variables positively influenced attitudes towards the product and, consequently, behavioural intentions. Some support was found for a moderating influence of country on the relationship between perception of humane orientation in the ad and the evaluation of that ad and on the relationship between perception of humane orientation in the ad and perceived degree of social responsibility of the advertiser. Implications for the use of humane-oriented CSR appeals in international advertising are discussed. Results suggest that international advertisers may pursue a standardized campaign in multiple markets when incorporating humane-oriented CSR appeals. Limitations and directions for further research are addressed.     

Opposites attract: Impact of background color on effectiveness of emotional charity appeals

The present work utilizes research on context effects and color psychology to investigate how background color can enhance the effectiveness of positive and negative charity appeals. Five experiments measuring both actual donations and donation intention examine the hypothesis that a negative charity appeal against an orange (vs. blue) background and a positive charity appeal against a blue (vs. orange) background will increase donations. We propose that this is because blue and orange colors are incongruous with positive and negative charity appeals, respectively, due to the affective valences of the appeals and the perceptions of warmth and coldness cued by the background colors. This incongruity enhances the attention people pay to the charity appeals, thereby strengthening their emotional response to the appeals, which increases charitable donations. When attention is manipulated, people who pay a high (vs. low) level of attention to the charity appeal are more likely to donate regardless of the color and valence of the appeal, suggesting attention is an important antecedent to the intensity of the emotional response and subsequent donation behavior. We also identify affect diagnosticity as a boundary condition for the effect – when people are informed that color affects their emotions, the contextual effect of color disappears.     

How donor's regulatory focus changes the effectiveness of a sadness-evoking charity appeal

Past research offers conflicting findings on whether sadness-evoking charity appeals help solicit a donation. To reconcile these findings, we introduce prospective donors' regulatory focus as a moderator for understanding when and why sadness appeals motivate or demotivate giving. Specifically, we propose that the sense of helplessness or loss of control associated with sadness appeals increases donors' sensitivity to advertiser's manipulative persuasion tactics, as those tactics can threaten donors' control over their donation decision. As a result, sadness appeals are more likely to activate persuasion knowledge among prevention- (vs. promotion-) oriented donors who tend to be vigilant against manipulative persuasion attempts. Across six main studies and two supplementary studies, we find that a prevention (vs. promotion) focus discourages charitable giving when it is solicited using a sadness appeal, whereas regulatory focus does not affect the giving when other emotion appeals (e.g., happiness appeal or guilt appeal) are used. We find that a prevention (vs. promotion) focus demotivates donation solicited by a sadness appeal because it activates persuasion knowledge that evaluates solicitor's motive behind the sadness appeal, resulting in increased skepticism, dampened feelings of sympathy, and consequently, reduced charitable giving. However, when persuasion knowledge is deactivated (e.g., when donors' cognitive capacity is constrained or the soliciting charity has a reliable reputation), regulatory focus no longer affects donor skepticism, sympathy, and charitable giving, even when a sadness appeal is used to call for donation.     

Five Seconds to the Ad: How Program-Induced Mood Affects Ad Countdown Effects

The study examines how program-induced mood and a five-second countdown warning affect reception of midroll video commercials. Building on mood regulation theory, findings from three studies suggest that program-induced moods and five-second countdowns systematically influence advertising effectiveness. When the main program is tragic (comedic) and when a countdown precedes (does not precede) the midroll ad, viewers have more positive attitudes toward the ad and purchase intentions. The findings are replicated in realistic (Study 1) and controlled (Studies 2A and 2B) settings.     

The impact of self-construal and message frame valence on reactance: a cross-cultural study in charity advertising

In the context of charity advertising, this two-study design project aims to contribute at the intersection of three literatures: psychological reactance theory (PRT), messaging framing, and self-construal theory. Using a survey with student samples from the US and China, Study 1 demonstrated that self-construal affected reactance, such that independent self-construal was more associated with reactance. Further, it outperformed cultural background in predicting reactance. People with predominantly interdependent self-construals showed higher intention to purchase a product with social causes. Study 2 was a 2 (framing: gain vs. loss)?×?2 (self-construal: independent vs. interdependent) between-subjects experiment using a non-student sample in the US results on the associations between self-construal and reactance and the intent to donate were consistent with findings of Study 1. Study 2 also indicated that compared to gain-framed appeals, using loss-framed appeals in charity advertising generated more reactance, the gap was more pronounced among individuals with relatively higher interdependent self-construals (i.e. moderate and high levels of interdependent-independent self-construal). This project offers important theoretical and applied implications and provides a robust avenue for future research. Limitations were also outlined.     

A Model of the Effects of Self-efficacy on the Perceived Ethicality and Performance of Fear Appeals in Advertising

The primary purpose of this study was to better understand the effects of consumers' perceived self-efficacy on their perceptions of the ethicality of a fear appeal and subsequent attitudes towards the ad, the brand, and purchase intentions. In this study, a total of 305 consumer responses were investigated to determine attitudes toward a fear appeal ad. The results suggest that the use of strong fear appeals may not be perceived as unethical if consumers feel they can use the recommended product to effectively eliminate the threat posed by the ad.     

Effects of Various Types of Cause-Related Marketing (CRM) Ad Appeals on Consumers' Visual Attention,Perceptions, and Purchase Intentions

ABSTRACT

The study examined whether various types of cause-related marketing (CRM) appeals (informational, emotional, or a combination of the two) influenced visual attention, as captured by eye fixation, and perceptions of the company and the ad, thus, leading to purchase intentions. The results suggest that a combined appeal generates more favorable responses to the ad. An eye-tracking experiment showed that an informational ad led to longer visual attention, and that visual attention was affected by the level of consumers' cause involvement. Visual attention had a negative impact on company credibility. Company credibility mediated the relationship between visual attention and CRM ad attitudes.     

Advertising strategies for charities

Charity advertising seeks to motivate donors to give either time or money, two resources that donors view as quite different from each other. Thus, the expectation is that donations of time and money are triggered by different mechanisms. This study aimed to determine the types of non-profit advertisement that are more effective in generating intentions to donate either money or time. The results of three experiments indicated that donors are more motivated to donate time rather than money through altruistic appeals, and that respondents exposed to egoistic appeals are more motivated to donate money than to donate time. Moreover, advertising showing beneficiaries who had been helped was more effective at convincing donors to volunteer their time, whereas advertising showing the needy triggered more monetary donations. Describing victims statistically and identifiably had mixed results across the studies.     

The games people play: How the entertainment value of online ads helps or harms persuasion

This research examines consumer reactions to online ads varying in levels of entertainment value. Results show that more favorable brand attitudes and more positive purchase intentions are formed when consumers are exposed to an ad that generates a high (game ad), rather than a low (banner ad) level of entertainment value. However, such effects are qualified by consumers' shopping goals. When consumers have access to their goals to seek specific product information, affect transfer is impaired, such that the advantage of entertaining ads dissipates. This research also documents moderating roles of individual differences in need for cognitive closure and Internet usage versatility. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Why do Caucasian advertising models appeal to consumers in Taiwan?

To test the influence of model ethnicity on advertising effectiveness in East Asia, this research proposed a cue-triggered value-expressive model, according to which positive attitudes towards western models help consumers with independent self-concepts express themselves. Western models generated more favourable ad responses (ad credibility, diagnosticity and attitudes), promoted stronger self–brand connections and led to more favourable brand attitudes than did Asian advertising models among independent respondents in Taiwan. In contrast, consumers with interdependent self-concepts did not exhibit such differences. Independent self-concepts also consisted of two sub-dimensions: horizontal individualism focused on the desire to be different, and vertical individualism centred on the desire to be superior. The former dimension accounted for the enhanced effects of western models. Three experiments confirmed that expressing positive attitudes towards these advertising models served value-expressive functions among consumers with uniqueness self-concepts when they read ads promoting products that were publicly (Study 1 and 3) or privately (Study 2) consumed.     

When are Consumers Motivated to Connect with Ethical Brands? The Roles of Guilt and Moral Identity Importance

This research adds to the growing literature on what draws consumers to ethical brands. Findings from three studies demonstrate that guilt motivates consumers to connect with ethical brands, especially those consumers with high levels of moral identity importance (MII). Specifically, Study 1 finds that consumers report stronger self‐brand connections (SBCs) with an ethical brand when they feel guilty (vs. control). Study 2 finds that guilt particularly motivates consumers with high MII to report stronger SBCs with an ethical (vs. unethical) brand. In turn, these strong connections lead to increased intentions to purchase the ethical brand. Finally, Study 3 finds evidence for the proposed motivation‐based process explanation by showing that high MII consumers’ propensity to connect with ethical brands when feeling guilty (vs. control) is attenuated when these consumers are first given the opportunity to donate to a charitable cause to alleviate their guilt. Overall, the findings suggest that ethical brands can foster strong connections with and elicit higher purchase intentions from consumers seeking ways to alleviate their guilt.     

Towards an understanding of consumer recycling from an ethical perspective

Recycling is a post‐purchase consumer activity where the consumer usually considers not only individual but also social goals, ideas and ideologies. Accordingly, ethics is an inherent part of recycling; however, very few studies have explored this behaviour from an ethical point of view. The purpose of this paper is to explain consumer recycling by taking a multifaceted ethical approach. The conceptual model builds on theoretical underpinnings related to ethical consumption by exploring the extensions of the theory of planned behaviour, Jones' ethical decision‐making model and Holbrook's conceptualization of ethical consumption. Thus, the attitude‐intention framework incorporates three ethics‐related concepts: (1) moral obligation, i.e. the level of guilt to perform the behaviour, (2) moral intensity, i.e. the moral issue characteristics, and (3) collectivism, i.e. an individual‐level value orientation. The data were collected from a sample of Slovenian consumers, using an online consumer panel. The sample reflected the Slovenian population in terms of gender and age. The proposed conceptual model was tested using structural equation modelling. The results suggest the proposed ethical concepts play a significant role in the attitude‐intention framework. The more collectivistic individuals have more positive attitudes towards recycling. Moreover, the more consumers perceive recycling as morally intense, the more favourable their attitudes are. In turn, attitudes positively affect intentions to recycle. In addition, higher levels of moral obligation positively influence intentions to recycle. The only hypothesis that is not supported in this study refers to the influence of moral intensity on intentions to recycle. The implications for public policymakers and social marketers stem from a complex interplay of the antecedents of recycling behaviour. Future studies could go in several directions by extending the model to other moral issues, conducting a study in a cross‐cultural setting or taking a longitudinal approach.