The impact of the European Novel Food Regulation on trade and food innovation based on traditional plant foods from developing countries

The stringent food safety assessment for novel foods required by the European Union’s Novel Food Regulation (NFR) places a high burden of proof on those bringing traditional food products to the EU market not consumed in the EU prior 1997. The regulation has emerged as a non-tariff trade barrier for heritage foods from developing countries that are viewed as “exotic” from the EU perspective. We show how the regulation has discouraged investment in supply chains and market development, and how this negatively affects income generation and rural poverty alleviation in developing countries. Focusing on plant-derived foods, this paper proposes to recognize traditional exotic foods in current EU law as a food category sui generis with food safety evidence requirements being proportionate to the risks they may pose. We argue that development activities promoting export food chains must increasingly accommodate legitimate food safety concerns about neglected food species in project design and seek to generate data to enhance regulatory acceptance in target markets.     

Water scarcity and food trade in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countries

This study investigates food trade patterns in relation to water resources availability in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countries (SEMED). Examinations show that most of these countries have a high dependence on the import of water intensive crops – cereal, vegetable oil and sugar, in the domestic food supply. The region as a whole is marginally a net exporter of fruits and vegetables, while variations are substantial across countries. Multi-variable regression analyses show that intensification of water scarcity is an important factor in explaining the increase in food import in the SEMED countries during the past two decades. It also finds that while GDP per capita has a strong influence on the level of food import in a country, its impact on changes in the import during the same period is rather modest. No significant relationship is found between the trade of fruits and vegetables and water resources availability. The projection on food import with respect to the decline in per capita water resources availability results in an increase of 40%, 39% and 14%, respectively, for cereal, vegetable oil and sugar by 2020 in the region, holding other factors constant. The European Union (EU) is the major food trade partner of the SEMED countries, except for cereal. About 70% of the fruit export and 55% of the vegetable export of the region currently go to the EU market. Expanding the export of fruits and vegetables is conducive to improving the value of water use in the SEMED countries. However, the expansion is constrained partly by the barriers in the destination markets, notably the EU.     

Product standards and developing country agricultural exports: The case of the European Union

This paper shows that voluntary product standards in EU food and agriculture markets can have significant trade effects. In particular for all countries and for goods that are raw or lightly processed, EU standards can often be trade-inhibiting. However, internationally harmonized EU standards—those that are equivalent to ISO norms—have much weaker trade effects, and in some cases are even trade-promoting. EU standards may have hurt developed countries more than developing countries, but this result is dependent on the sector. At a policy level, the results highlight the importance of dealing with the trade effects of voluntary standards in major markets, not just mandatory public standards.     

Agro-food trade competitiveness of Central European and Balkan countries

This paper investigates the level, composition, and differences in agro-food relative trade advantages/disadvantages for eight Central European and Balkan countries on the European Union (EU) markets and their implications for food policy. Higher and more stable relative trade advantages are found for bulk primary raw agricultural commodities and less for consumer-ready foods, implying competitiveness shortcomings in food processing and in international food marketing. Duration analysis shows that the EU enlargement has a negative impact on agro-food relative trade advantages for all eight analyzed countries. Estimations imply that the duration of agro-food relative trade advantages are the highest for Hungary and Poland, and for Bulgaria in differentiated products, indicating their agro-food trade potentials in the EU-15 markets.     

Policies and practices for aquaculture food safety in China

There are growing concerns over the safety of aquaculture food products from China, which supplies 70% of the world’s farmed fish food. We present a comprehensive literature review, supplemented with qualitative data obtained from interviews with experts in the field, to examine the policies and practices designed to ensure the safety of food produced by the Chinese aquaculture industry. The food safety system has many parts that are administered by different governmental organizations with poor coordination among them. The system apparently operates as two entities: one for products destined for the export market and based largely on the requirements of importing countries, and the other with lower standards and levels of enforcement for domestic market products. The top-down approach focuses more on the end product rather than the production practices. There are several indications that regulations pertaining to antibiotic use are not being followed. Recent events have brought the issue of overall food safety to the attention of the Chinese public and the Government is acting positively towards addressing deficiencies of the system. Chief among these is the Food Safety Law which comes into effect in June, 2009. But the central government must work in concert with provincial and local authorities to improve the infrastructure for inspecting and tracking food from farms to the end consumers to ensure a greater degree of safety of aquatic food for the Chinese population.     

Consumer knowledge and use of information about fish and aquaculture

This paper explores consumers’ knowledge about fish and aquaculture and assesses the use and importance of different information cues about fish. Cross-sectional data were collected in 2008 through a consumer survey (n = 3213) in the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Sweden and the UK. Consumers’ knowledge about fish generally, and about aquaculture in particular, was relatively low and differed significantly between countries. Consumers from all countries reported an indication of quality and/or food safety as an information cue when buying fish. The information sources most frequently used by Europeans were labelling and sellers in retail or supermarkets. The Internet was identified by consumers in all of the countries as one of the most important sources of information about sea and freshwater fish products. Policy makers and food marketers are encouraged to develop a simple and easily recognisable mark (relating to quality, food safety and nutrition) to assist consumer decision-making. Information campaigns focusing on issues such as the nutritional benefits of eating fish are also recommended.     

Improving developing country food security through aquaculture development—lessons from Asia

This paper provides a framework for examining aquaculture’s linkages to food and nutritional security by elucidating key hypotheses concerning the role of aquaculture in household food and income systems in developing countries. Taking examples from developing Asia, where aquaculture showed a steady growth over the last decade, the implications of aquaculture development are examined from the standpoint of its impact on employment, income and consumption. Analysis revealed clear evidence of positive income and consumption effects of aquaculture on households. However, employment effects are still not significant. The context of targeting small-scale and subsistence-oriented farmers as a means of improving food security in the developing countries has also been analyzed by identifying key socio-economic and policy factors affecting aquaculture adoption and its impact on the poor. The paper concludes that national policies for aquaculture development will need to concurrently address the food security and poverty questions more sharply than has been done at present, by providing institutional and infrastructure support for access to resources such as land and water and to markets by poor households. Finally, more empirical evidence should be collected on the varied opportunities aquaculture would provide to improve the income, employment and food consumption levels within households.     

Tradition and diversity jeopardised by food safety regulations? The Serrano Cheese case,Campos de Cima da Serra region,Brazil

Although some authors and policymakers have been considering the valorisation of traditional food as a strategy to revitalise rural areas, the commercialisation of such foods in formal markets demands strict compliance with food safety regulations. This is particularly so in relation to building structures and equipment. However, many of these requirements, based on an expectation of zero microbiological contamination, represent a big challenge to traditional food production and commercialisation; they often put in jeopardy the very characteristics that make these foods unique, diverse and desirable. Taking this context into account, how would it be possible to overcome the challenges that food safety regulations represent to the valorisation and maintenance of the individuality and diversity of traditional and artisanal food? This paper, inspired by the Cultural Theory of risk, considers the case of traditional cheeses, particularly those made from raw milk and using wooden surfaces, moulds and utensils, which are commonly used in many Latin American countries. The aim is to amplify the debate related to traditional food valorisation, particularly regarding artisanal cheeses. To do this, we consider the case of Serrano Cheese, an artisanal cheese made from unpasteurised milk in Campos de Cima da Serra, a region located in the southernmost state of Brazil. A field study inspired by the ethnographic method was carried out in this region. The data collected indicate that besides adapting production and expertise to food safety regulations, the valorisation of traditional food depends firstly on understanding the risk perceptions related to these products and secondly on recognising and legitimating traditional forms of knowledge.     

Accounting for ARPU: New evidence from international panel data

Average revenue per user (ARPU) is commonly used by regulators and industry observers to compare the performance of mobile telephony markets. Under the new EU electronic communications regulatory framework, some national regulatory authorities (NRAs) have linked higher ARPU with ‘significant market power’. This paper empirically examines the determinants of ARPU in a systematic way, taking account of service quality, market environment, regulation and quantity of service. The robust results suggest that concentration may not be a reliable indicator of competition in mobile markets; there are economies of density in mobile markets; and higher GDP per capita increases ARPU.     

Implications for food production, land use and rural development of the European Union’s Single Farm Payment: Indications from a survey of farmers’ intentions in Germany, Portugal and the UK

The 2003 reform of the European Union’s (EU) Common Agricultural Policy introduced a decoupled income support for farmers called the Single Farm Payment (SFP). Concerns were raised about possible future land use and production changes and their impact on rural communities. Here, such concerns are considered against the workings of the SFP in three EU Member States. Various quantitative studies that have determined the likely impact of the SFP within the EU and the study countries are reviewed. We present the results of a farm survey conducted in the study countries in which farmers’ responses to a decoupling scenario similar to the SFP were sought. We found that little short-term change was proposed in the three, rather different, study countries with only 30% of the farmers stating that they would alter their mix of farm activities. Furthermore, less than 30% of all respondents in each country would idle any land under decoupling. Of those who would adopt a new activity, the most popular choices were forestry, woodland and non-food crops.     

From mutual recognition to mutual scientific opinion? Constitutional framework for risk analysis in EU food safety law

Regulation 178/2002 (the so-called General Food Law – GFL) codifies risk analysis as the core principle of the modern food safety policy. This article places the GFL in EU multi-level food safety governance and analyses the impact of risk analysis, the precautionary principle and mechanisms of scientific governance introduced by the GFL on both national and Community legislation. It discusses the case law of the European Courts dealing with scientific evidence and the precautionary principle applied to both European and national food safety measures. The article concludes with some observations on the role of the risk analysis methodology in the Community internal market.     

Adoption of food safety and quality standards among Chilean raspberry producers – Do smallholders benefit?

The growing importance of food quality and safety standards in international markets is influencing production and marketing conditions of farmers worldwide. The effects of this development on small-scale farmers in developing countries are controversially discussed in the scientific debate. While small-scale farmers may benefit from standard compliance in terms of better market access and technology upgrading, non-compliance may lead to market exclusion and marginalization. The present study aims to identify the factors influencing a certification according to food safety and quality standards and the impact on farm management and income among exportoriented raspberry farmers in Chile. Survey data from 57 certified and 169 non-certified Chilean smallholder raspberry producers is analyzed. The analysis of the certification decision shows that small-scale farmers are less likely to implement food safety and quality standards. Once farmers are able to overcome the barriers and implement a food standard, we find that this has a positive effect on their quality performance and net raspberry income.     

Industry self-regulation of food advertisement to children: Compliance versus effectiveness of the EU Pledge

This research examines the effectiveness of the EU Pledge, a self-regulation initiative of leading food companies at the European level, in restricting television advertising of food and drink products high in fat, sugar or salt (HFSS) to children. In October 2011 and 2014, television program of ten German television networks was recorded on a weekday and a weekend day. Data was analyzed using content and regression analysis. Advertised products were examined for their compliance with the nutrient criteria of the EU Pledge and the UK OFCOM nutrient profile model. The sample contains 88 h of advertising with a total of 697 child-targeted food and beverage advertising (CFBA). The results indicate that the number of CFBA broadcasted in television program declined from 2011 to 2014 for both Pledge signatory and non-signatory companies with an overall stronger reduction in children’s compared to non-children’s program. Our findings demonstrate that CFBA broadcasted in children’s program by Pledge members comply by and large with the EU Pledge nutritional criteria in 2014. However, in the same year the probability of CFBA aired by signatory companies in non-children’s program to meet the nutrient profile criteria of the EU Pledge was low. Furthermore, the majority of CFBA of signatory companies do not meet the OFCOM nutritional criteria even in the children’s program. Thus, the effectiveness of the EU Pledge in reducing children’s exposure to child-targeted advertising of HFSS foods and drinks is limited by the focus on children’s program and the relative lenient nutritional criteria agreed on by signatory companies. Based on our results we derive recommendations for industry and policy.     

The involvement of utilities in the development of broadband infrastructure: A comparison of EU case studies

Energy companies and other utility providers have been often involved in the provision of telecommunications services. Nevertheless, their contribution to broadband development has varied significantly over time. In the late 1990s, both local and national utilities in the European Union (EU) engaged in the provision of broadband networks, but only few of them managed to establish themselves as major broadband providers. More recently, new projects involving national utilities have been announced in several EU countries, opening new scenarios for utilities’ contribution to Next Generation Access (NGA) development. This paper identifies and explores the factors affecting the entry and the success of utilities in the EU broadband market, through the comparison of four case studies from four EU countries (Germany, Italy, Sweden and the UK). The evolution of utility involvement in the EU broadband markets is assessed against the interaction of market, technology and policy factors, focusing on the impact of policy and regulatory measures. As a result, this paper provides fruitful insights into the relevance and effectiveness of public interventions in broadband markets. Across the four case studies, public support and public ownership emerged as the main drivers for the involvement of utilities in EU broadband markets, with regulatory measures and economies of scope exerting a limited and decreasing influence. However, the contribution of utilities has varied significantly across the cases studied, reflecting the different approaches taken at national and local level to support broadband development, in spite of the common regulatory framework.     

Public–private partnerships and collective action in high value fruit and vegetable supply chains

Accessing developed country food markets entails meeting stringent food safety requirements. Food retailers impose protocols relating to pesticide residues, field and pack house operations, and traceability. To enable smallholders to remain competitive in such a system, new institutional arrangements are required. In particular, public–private partnerships can play a key role in creating farm to fork linkages that can satisfy market demands for food safety, while retaining smallholders in the supply chain. Furthermore, organized producer groups monitoring their own food safety standards through collective action often become attractive to buyers who are looking for ways to ensure traceability and reduce transaction costs. This paper compares the ways in which small producers of fruits and vegetables in Kenya and India have coped with increased demands for food safety from their main export markets.     

A mischievous attitude to African agriculture

The term ‘commercial agriculture’ has come to have two definitions: one for industrialized countries, and another for developing countries. Many academics and journalists imply that, for example, African agriculture is only ‘commercial agriculture’ when Africans are producing export crops such as coffee, cotton or tea for industrialized countries. Jossy Bibangambah disputes the logic and uses the case of Uganda to explain how food crops and cash crops compete when it comes to allocating resources.     

FDA’s regulation of genetically engineered foods: Scientific, legal and political dimensions

The controversy over genetically engineered (GE) food during the southern Africa drought in 2002/03 raised questions concerning the safety of GE foods and the basis for the safety assurances issued by national and international agencies. In the case of foods grown in the US, these assurances must be interpreted in relation to the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) 1992 policy, which remains in effect today. This paper provides a detailed examination of the roles of scientific, legal and political considerations in the development of that policy.This paper reveals that the FDA responded to political pressure for a permissive regulatory approach by exploiting gaps in scientific knowledge, creatively interpreting existing food law and limiting public involvement in the policy’s development. Common statements by the government and other proponents concerning sound science, rigorous testing, no evidence of harm and “as safe as conventional foods” are found to be misleading unless the scientific, legal and political basis for the US policy is taken into account.While this paper finds that the evidence for the safety of GE foods has been exaggerated by government agencies and other parties, nothing in this paper suggests that GE foods currently on the market are harmful to human health. To the contrary, the situation is one of great uncertainty. Repeated recommendations that this issue be the topic of a major public research effort have yet to be acted upon.     

Irradiation as a quarantine treatment

Poor consumer acceptance and large fixed costs have limited the use of irradiation to increase food safety and mitigate pest risks. We discuss these challenges to irradiation’s use as quarantine treatment and the growth of some irradiated fresh fruits imports since 2006. Lower regulatory barriers, changes to labeling requirements, and the curtailment of other quarantine treatments may de-stigmatize irradiation on the demand side while scale economies may reduce costs on the supply side.     

Australian consumer attitudes to health claim – food product compatibility for functional foods

This study with Australian consumers investigated how appealing different health claims combined with particular food carriers were to Australian consumers, and compared the results of a similar study with Dutch consumers. 149 shoppers considered up to 30 different food concepts, rating how ‘attractive’, ‘believable’, and ‘new and different’ they found each concept and their ‘intention to try’. Each variable was significantly related to intention to try (p < 0.001) and together explained 56% of the intention score. Claims and carriers independently had a significant effect on ratings of attractiveness and intention to try but, unlike the Dutch study, the carrier was a more important predictor of intention to purchase than the claim. Implications for regulation of health claims for food are discussed.     

Delisting from EU HACCP certification: Analysis of the Philippine seafood processing industry

This paper employs firm level benefit-cost and supply chain analyses to explore the reasons why a majority of Philippine seafood processing firms discontinued EU HACCP between 2004 and 2005. Results indicate that only 38% of firms remained certified, as they gained significantly from retention of EU markets, gained access to US markets, captured new buyers, and reduced product wastage. However, 62% of the initially certified firms abandoned certification, as they did not realize most of the anticipated benefits from certification and continuing certification was not economically viable. Delisting by some processors led to profit losses among their raw fish and input suppliers amounting to $4–6 million per year, representing approximately 6–9% of the value of Philippine seafood exports to the EU and mainly affecting small aquaculture fish suppliers.