A legal framework with scientific basis for applying the ‘polluter pays principle’ to soil conservation in rural watersheds in Brazil

The “polluter pays principle” (PPP) has been looked at from the perspective of legal values and technical principles, namely of soil science, to evaluate the acceleration of soil erosion and the consequent development of degraded areas in the Uberaba River basin (area: 2419 km²), state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Having accomplished this goal, the study highlights the importance of PPP for the conservation of soil and development of an ecologically equilibrated environment. The diagnosis of degraded areas was based on the coupling of a Geographic Information System with soil loss, land use conflict and tolerance to soil loss models, and revealed a preoccupying situation because an extension of approximately 905 km² (1/3 of the basin) has been considered in advanced state of degradation potentially causing environmental damage (e.g., decline of soil fertility and hence crop production, negative impacts of soil particles export on stream and lake water quality and biodiversity of riverine ecosystems). Facing this problem, a legal framework standing on doctrinaire principles, federal laws and the Brazilian Constitution has been proposed whereby the protagonists of soil degradation are called to assume responsibility as well as the costs of repairing this negative condition. Although the study has been carried out on a specific country under pre-defined settings, the rationale behind the proposals can easily be transposed to other scenarios because the scientific methods on which soil degradation has been defined and mapped are generally applicable, while the suggested legal values are currently applied to many regions on the planet.     

Conservation agriculture practices adopted in southern Brazil

The adoption of conservation agriculture (CA) practices are essential for soil and water conservation. In CA, farmers must adopt no-tillage (NT) with crop rotation to maintain a permanent soil cover. In Brazil, mainly in the South region, for CA to be more efficient, practices such as contour farming and agricultural terraces should also be adopted. Thus, the objective of this study is to determine the extent to which NT has been adopted with crop rotation and others soil and water conservation practices. Data from the Agricultural Census in Paraná State, southern Brazil, were used. For the data analysis, the relationship between the level of adoption of NT and the use of crop rotation, contour farming and agricultural terraces was analyzed. A factor and cluster analysis were performed to distinguish regions in terms of soil and water conservation practices. The results show good overall soil and water conservation practices, although heterogeneity has been observed in the adoption practices between regions. Adoption of NT is high in almost all the studied regions. The conservation practice most widely used with NT is contour farming, whereas the least used is agricultural terraces. Conservation practices for runoff control are being neglected by farmers.     

水土资源约束下区域农业供给侧结构优化——以河北省为例

在水土资源约束背景下,如何通过农业供给侧结构优化协调区域水土资源分布与农业生产的关系是当前农业问题的重中之重。借助比较优势理论和农业系统理论,构建水土资源约束下区域农业供给侧结构优化模型,并以河北省为研究对象进行实证分析,选用多目标优化粒子群算法对模型进行求解,以实现区域农业经济高效、可持续发展。     

Chinese land policies and farmers’ adoption of organic fertilizer for saline soils

Soil salinization has become a global concern and poses a great threat to food production and sustainable land use. Land use policies are the main driver of saline soil farmland use in ecosystems. This paper proposes a theoretical framework for analyzing how saline soil farmland use is affected by land use practices of individual farm households. An empirical study, using an ordered probit model, was conducted based on questionnaire responses from farm households in 8 towns and 14 villages in eco-fragile areas in Shandong, Jilin and Xinjiang provinces. The results suggest that land tenure, state systems agricultural support, characteristics of a field parcel and characteristics of the farm households have different influences on farmer's land use in three regions. The adoption of organic fertilizer by individual households is constrained by the lack of stability and integrity in land tenure. Furthermore, the parcel of a field is generally small, sparsely distributed and often fragmented, which increases costs. Even subsidizing organic fertilizer does not necessarily help in its adoption. Given these challenges, this study makes recommendations for different regions that may promote the adoption of improved saline soil farmland cultivation methods by farmers.     

Land use conversion in metropolitan areas and the permanence of agriculture: Sensitivity Index of Agricultural Land (SIAL), a tool for territorial analysis

In the past few years, urban growth has affected vast agricultural areas, especially in some European regions (EEA, 2006). In peri-urban areas, land consumption is particularly intense, exposing agriculture to the risk of land loss. Assuming the action of different factors, both exogenous and endogenous, on the agricultural system, the potential risk of land use conversion is measured by the Sensitivity Index of Agricultural Land (SIAL), an innovative tool for territorial analysis. In the following paper, the SIAL will be presented with an application for a metropolitan area. In this case study, the exogenous variables of urban proximity seem to be those most involved in the processes of conversion from agricultural to urban land use.     

标准化降水蒸散指数在华北平原的适用性分析

[目的]明确被广泛应用于农业气象研究的标准化降水蒸散指数(Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index,SPEI)在华北平原的适用性,能够为区域减灾和可持续发展提供科学依据。[方法]利用1961—2015年华北平原气象观测资料,使用Penman-monteith模型,计算了标准化降水蒸散量指数(SPEI),从数理统计、土壤湿度、农作物受灾面积等方面综合分析了SPEI在华北平原地区的适用性和对干旱的评价能力。[结果](1)华北平原地区SPEI与10~20cm土壤相对湿度呈现显著正相关关系,SPEI值越大,气候越湿润,土壤湿度越大。(2)同一时间尺度下,不同地区SPEI与农作物受灾面积呈显著的正相关,相关系数由弱到强分别是河南省<山东省<河北省,而各地区的水稻种植面积由少到多依次为河北省<山东省<河南省,灌溉对潜在蒸散量计算结果干扰较大,SPEI对水稻种植区域的历史干旱识别不灵敏;(3)文章计算的SPEI能够与历史同时期发生的、厄尔尼诺引发的干旱事件很好地对应起来,华北平原地区整体呈不显著的干旱化趋势,各年代差异较大。[结论]综合考虑了气温、风速和日照时数计算的SPEI,年尺度和季节尺度能够与典型站点典型年份的干旱事件很好地对应起来,与土壤水分监测数据和农作物灾情数据有显著的相关性,能够较好反映干旱严重程度,经过数理统计检验的SPEI适用于华北平原地区干湿变化的研究,但同时也要注意灌溉农业区的特殊水热状况,做出合理的分析调整。     

农业空间匹配及其经济增长效应研究——以长三角为例

[目的]产业空间匹配是产业发展的重要影响因素,产业发展与区域优势要素相匹配有助于缩小地区间经济水平差距,达到均衡发展状态。[方法]文章从水土资源匹配和产业相对优势匹配两个角度定义了农业空间匹配质量,以长三角为例量化该地区41个地级市的匹配质量,随后采用空间滞后模型对农业空间匹配质量的经济增长效应进行了实证分析。[结果]结果显示农业水土资源匹配度对长三角农业经济增长效应为-0.146 4,空间计量模型的空间滞后影响力为0.27。长三角各地区农业水土资源匹配状况总体趋势上表现出先提高后降低的趋势,2011—2015年达到最大值。[结论]水土资源匹配度对长三角农业经济增长具有显著的负向影响,而相对优势匹配度对农业经济增长的影响不显著。增长模型中体现了空间的适应性,形成了良好的产业空间集聚。科技、劳动力和城市化都是其主要的驱动力,推动着水土资源匹配度在不同时期的变化。     

Sugar‐Cane and Oil Palm Expansion in Guatemala and its Consequences for the Regional Economy

Corporate‐owned sugar‐cane and oil palm plantations in Guatemala are expanding at the expense of smallholder agriculture. Land control grabs are not only having consequences for local communities and ecosystems, but also for regional economies. The present study compares the value chains of smallholder products with those of sugar and palm oil. Primary data were collected from agricultural producers and their backward and forward sectors in the agricultural regions where the plantations are most prominent. The results show that on a regional level, sugar and palm oil generate fewer jobs in comparison to the products of small‐scale agriculture, which have important forward linkages to small and medium trading and processing sectors. In addition, the wealth created by small‐scale farming remains within the regions, whereas profits from the sugar and palm oil industries are being transferred out of them. Therefore, to achieve inclusive regional development, smallholder agriculture should be strengthened rather than promoting monoculture expansion.     

Mitigating environmental risks: Modeling the interaction of water quality parameters and land use cover

Understanding the relationship between rivers water quality (RWQ) and landscape metrics (LMs) is valuable for developing sustainable watershed management practices and pollution/environmental risk mitigation. To do so, the current study aimed to explore the relationship between RWQ and LMs by assessing 74 sub-basins within 2 million ha in Northern Iran. Principal component analyses were used to identify principal water quality parameters. Considering the effect of composition and configuration of the Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) on pollution loads, statistical models revealed that by increasing the mean of the Fractal Dimension Index of agricultural lands, the nitrate loads will increase. The results of this study can be especially used in the environmental impact/risk assessment of new industrial and residential applications. Also, the findings of the current study could provide a perfect source for calculations and choosing the best policy making decisions.     

Fostering integrated land and water management approaches: Evaluating the water footprint of a Mediterranean basin under different agricultural land use scenarios

In the Genil River Basin (southern Spain), agriculture is the greatest pressure on freshwater demand. Furthermore, water degradation caused by soil erosion is becoming a key environmental concern. This study aims to assess the water-related impacts of agriculture combining the use of an ecohydrological model (SWAT) with a spatiotemporal water footprint assessment to evaluate the current status of streamflow (blue water), soil water (green water) and the assimilability of sediments by streamflow (grey water footprint). The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) requires farmers to adopt certain agricultural practices that are beneficial for the environment. Such practices could affect the conditions of available land and water resources. Because of the importance of applying the best land management practices for the maintenance of sustainable water resources, the study also infers probable water availability and water pollution level changes under different post-2013 CAP scenarios. The Genil streamflow is highly regulated, and, as a result, it is hard to discern significant changes (p < 0.05) under the proposed scenarios. However, there is a shift with afforestation measures from unproductive (i.e., direct soil evaporation) to productive water (i.e., evapotranspired water from agricultural and natural areas, excluding non-growing periods) consumption. The probability of annual evapotranspiration from natural areas being greater in afforestation scenarios than in the baseline scenario is 0.70 to 0.88, whereas the likelihood of soil water evaporation being lower is 0.60. Evapotranspiration in natural areas increases by about 521% from September to May under afforestation measures compared with the baseline scenario, whereas soil water evaporation decreases by 30% in winter. The grey water footprint and water pollution level decrease by 19% and 9%, respectively, with the highest streamflow conditions under afforestation as opposed to current conditions. However, water pollution levels of suspended solids greater than 1 indicate that the river flow is not capable of assimilating the existing sediment loads. Since land use changes and agricultural practices have a major impact on water resources, the post-2013 CAP reform can provide environmental benefits for water allocation and mitigation of water pollution. However, further efforts are required to better align the policy goals of the CAP and the Water Framework Directive.     

农业绿色水资源利用与农业经济增长脱钩关系研究

[目的]探究全国不同区域农业绿色水资源利用效率及其与农业经济增长间的脱钩关系,期望为农业绿色发展以及推动农业高质量发展提供决策参考。[方法]文章借助全局超效率SBM模型测算出农业绿色水资源利用效率,并依据灰水足迹理论计算出农业灰水足迹,应用脱钩理论及其脱钩程度判定标准,测算中国31个省域的农业绿色水资源利用与经济增长的脱钩程度。[结果]（1）我国的农业绿色水资源利用效率有待提升且存在地区差异,东部沿海地区农业绿色水资源利用效率较高,西部最低;（2）我国农业绿色水资源利用效率与农业经济增长的脱钩状态呈现阶段性并存在区域差异。2008—2015年四大区域普遍处于弱脱钩状态,但2016年之后,各个区域的二者脱钩状态开始呈现扩张性负脱钩,农业绿色水资源利用效率和农业经济增长的脱钩状态趋于缓和。[结论]应深入贯彻绿色发展理念并坚持因地制宜,合理应对区域水资源绿色利用和农业经济增长的关系。     

The relationship between land use and surface water resources in the UK

Land use and water resources are inextricably entwined. The need to protect the quantity and quality of water resources can impact potential land uses and land management practices, while water availability is a pre-requisite for land uses requiring irrigation. Land use and land management changes impact on water resources for example through changes in catchment yields, infiltration rates, dissolved organic carbon and nutrient transfers. While there is no absolute shortage of water resources across the UK as a whole, spatial and temporal variations already result in water stress across much of the south and east of England during dry summers. In the future, water stress is expected to become more widespread in response to population growth, increasing environmental protection and climate change. Surface water quality is reported to be improving at present, though there are doubts as to the adequacy of the monitoring coverage. Climate change is likely to adversely affect surface water quality, with less dilution in summer and more extreme rainfalls in winter leading to increased erosion and pollution. To conserve usable water resources, land uses which increase evapotranspiration or rapid runoff should be discouraged, particularly in the south and east, and there need to be continuing efforts to maintain good chemical water quality in rivers and groundwater. Water resource constraints will limit opportunities to use irrigation as a counter to climate change, and will influence where irrigated production can be located.     

A model for big spatial rural data infrastructure in Turkey: Sensor-driven and integrative approach

A Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) enables the effective spatial data flow between providers and users for their prospective land use analyses. The need for an SDI providing soil and land use inventories is crucial in order to optimize sustainable management of agricultural, meadow and forest lands. In an SDI where datasets are static, it is not possible to make quick decisions about land use. Therefore, SDIs must be enhanced with online data flow and the capabilities to store big volumes of data. This necessity brings the concepts of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Big Data (BD) into the discussion.Turkey needs to establish an SDI to monitor and manage its rural lands. Even though Turkish decision-makers and scientists have constructed a solid national SDI standardization, a conceptual model for rural areas has not been developed yet. In accordance with the international agreements, this model should adopt the INSPIRE Directive and Land Parcel Identification System (LPIS) standards. In order to manage rural lands in Turkey, there are several legislations which characterize the land use planning, land classification and restrictions. Especially, the Soil Protection and Land Use Law (SPLUL) enforces to use a lot and a variety of land use parameters that should be available in a big rural SDI. Moreover, this model should be enhanced with IoT, which enables to use of smart sensors to collect data for monitoring natural occurrences and other parameters that may help to classify lands.This study focuses on a conceptual model of a Turkish big rural SDI design that combines the sensor usage and attribute datasets for all sorts of rural lands. The article initially reviews Turkish rural reforms, current enterprises to a national SDI and sensor-driven agricultural monitoring. The suggested model integrates rural land use types, such as agricultural lands, meadowlands and forest lands. During the design process, available data sets and current legislation for Turkish rural lands are taken into consideration. This schema is associated with food security databases (organic and good farming practices), non-agricultural land use applications and local/European subsidies in order to monitor the agricultural parcels on which these practices are implemented. To provide a standard visualization of this conceptual schema, the Unified Modeling Language (UML) class diagrams are used and a supplementary data dictionary is prepared to make clear definitions of the attributes, data types and code lists used in the model.This conceptual model supports the LPIS, ISO 19156 International Standard (Geographic Information: Observations and Measurements) catalogue and INSPIRE data theme specifications due to the fact that Turkey is negotiating the accession to EU; however, it also provides a local understanding that enables to manage rural lands holistically for sustainable development goals. It suggests an expansion for the sensor variety of Turkish agricultural monitoring project (TARBIL) and it specifies a rural theme for Turkish National SDI (TUCBS).     

A spatial analysis of land-use change and agriculture in eastern Canada

Publicly available statistics regarding rural demographics, rural society and land use are presented and analysed using Geographic Information System (GIS). Our aim was to provide a quantitative basis for discussion of rural policy issues such as urban encroachment. Productivity (tonnage) of crop agriculture has increased by about 230% over 40 years while that of livestock (expressed as livestock units) has remained constant. Agricultural consolidation and intensification seen in southern Ontario has not translated into economic sustainability where on-farm income declined from 1991 to 2000. However, on-farm income in southern Quebec and municipalities adjacent to Toronto increased, perhaps due to the niche markets created in these regions. The increases in agricultural activity throughout southern Ontario have occurred in regions that have been designated as sites for innovation clusters, thus providing a foundation of resources for bio-based industries to expand and innovate. Reflecting on trends of demographics and production systems we conclude that rural policy should orient its geographical delineation to regional and inter-provincial scales. Our analysis indicates that rural populations and communities are sustainable but agricultural enterprises have changed radically; they have maintained or increased productivity but lost profitability. Applying a rural landscape design to the entire region would help address the sustainability of agriculture and rural communities.     

水足迹视角下京津冀县域粮食作物水土资源匹配格局

[目的]农业水土资源是粮食生产的决定因素,探明京津冀粮食生产中水土资源匹配格局特征对区域经济发展有深远的影响。[方法]文章从水足迹的视角出发,分析了1980—2018年京津冀县域5种主要粮食作物（小麦、玉米、稻谷、大豆、薯类）的产量、播种面积、水足迹、耕地面积的时空变化,运用水土匹配系数法及ArcGIS深入研究了1983年、1998年、2003年和2016年水土资源匹配格局,并进一步剖析区域农业水土匹配对农业生产的影响。[结果]（1）当前京津冀水土匹配系数区间为[0.02,1.25],超出区间范围[0.281, 0.431];粮食生产格局与水土匹配系数空间格局均为“冀中南高、北部低”。（2）研究时段内,京津冀粮食总产量提高1.14倍,播种总面积降低19.28%,粮食单产量显著提高;灌溉提高粮食单产量,水土匹配系数与粮食单产量呈正相关。（3） 1980—2019年京津冀5种作物蓝水足迹均值（136.64亿m3）是绿水足迹均值（99.60亿m3）的1.37倍,各作物水足迹变化不同,间接反映地区农业种植结构的改变。（4）京津冀水足迹总量提高2.45倍,耕地总量下降20.59%,水土匹配系数变...     

面向国土空间规划的农业生产适宜性评价——以辽中平原为例

[目的]依据农业生产的自然本底条件与国土利用现状,开展农业生产适宜性评价与承载规模测算研究,可为科学支撑国土空间规划编制提供理论参考。[方法]文章依据资源环境承载能力与国土空间适宜性的基本评价导向,以辽中平原为例,通过分析农业生产的水、土、光热、环境质量、气象灾害、国土利用、生态保护等条件与风险,细化了农业生产适宜性与承载规模评价方法,并基于GIS空间分析开展了相应评价。[结果]辽中平原农业生产适宜区、一般适宜区、不适宜区面积占比分别为48.1%、23.9%和28.0%。不适宜区主要受现状国土利用、坡度、土壤肥力、环境质量制约。不适宜区内分布有耕地、园地13.9万hm2,主要在平原北部的沈阳、铁岭、阜新等地。辽中平原农业生产承载规模约320.6万hm2,高出现状耕地规模约16%,整体上农业生产承载能力尚有盈余,但受水资源约束,盘锦、营口平原区域的农业生产规模超载。[结论]为支撑区域国土空间规划、保障粮食生产安全,需加强辽中平原农业生产不适宜区内的耕地监管,开展周边土地及环境综合整治,必要时制定耕地调入调出方案,优化农业生产超载地区的水量调配方案及用水结构,大力推行农业节水灌溉。     

基于DEA的农业水土资源匹配特征研究*——以甘肃省5流域为例

［目的］水土资源可持续利用是经济社会和生态环境可持续发展的基础。以疏勒河、黑河、石羊河、黄河上游、嘉陵江5个流域为评价单元,研究2001—2016年甘肃省的流域农业水土资源配置效率的趋势、分析其主要影响因素,并基于不同流域农业生产投入及其冗余状况对生产效率提升途径进行探索。［方法］运用数据包络分析法中的BCC和CCR模型分析该省农业水土资源匹配特征,并利用Mann Kendall法进行趋势检验,最后运用主成分分析法探究其主要影响因素。［结果］（1）2001—2016年甘肃省农业水土资源利用综合效率、技术效率、规模效率总体走向呈现上升并趋于稳定,这种上升趋势通过了005的显著性检验;（2）从时间序列来看, 2001—2016年甘肃省及各流域地区的农业水土资源匹配程度总体上呈现上升趋势并趋于稳定状态; 从流域空间上来看,各流域农业水土资源匹配程度比较结果为：黑河＞石羊河＞黄河上游＞疏勒河＞嘉陵江;（3）总人口数、城镇化率、降水量、产水模数及GDP耗水量这5个影响因子的显著性和代表性增强,对甘肃省水土资源匹配的解释程度也较强。［结论］甘肃省水土资源匹配度有较大的提升空间,从各流域水土资源利用和管理特点出发,采取具体措施优化限制因子,可以促进区域比较优势的发挥,又能够引导区域农业经济空间的合理化,最终实现农业可持续发展目标。     

A multi-criteria model for land valuation in the land consolidation

Land consolidation is an effective technique in land management that contributes to sustainable rural development. Land valuation is one of the most important steps in land consolidation because it plays an important role in the reallocation process. Land valuation is also an important problem in Turkey as in many countries in the world. Because the lands will be reallocated at the end of the consolidation process, it is very important to determine the precise value of each parcel. However, the methods used in land valuation in many countries lag behind current techniques and technologies. For this reason, a new method for land valuation is needed. The purpose of this study was to develop a new model based on multi-criteria calculations that is suitable for today's technologies and addresses the weakness in the current land valuation methods. In a case study of Solak, Antalya, Turkey, we identified fourteen key land value factors. Those factors were assigned weights by the Land Valuation Committee, academic staff, engineers, and local landowners. The weights were then integrated into a framework called the Land Quality Index. The land quality index factors are the criteria for evaluating the geographical, physical, and socio-economic structure of the region. The scores for each factor on each parcel were determined using GIS software. The total score of fourteen factors was then converted to a 100-point scale, that comprised the Land Quality Index. The land value of each parcel was determined by adding the soil index to the Land Quality Index. In our study, we also created three different models to investigate how the parameters were apportioned during the land valuation. We found that, while the current method used by the government agency (General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works) classified the lands into five groups, our methods classified the lands into 17, 20, 24 groups, respectively. In addition, while the deduction rate was 4.97 % in the current method, they were 4.89 %, 4.86 % and 4.85 % in our new models, respectively. The method we proposed in this study determined land values more accurately, precisely, and fairly compared to current method used by General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works. It is suggested that our models could be used instead of the current method in the land consolidation works in Turkey.     

基于双前沿面SBM-DEA模型的农业用水效率评价

基于有效效率前沿(乐观)和无效效率前沿(悲观)面SBM-DEA模型,对中国31个省(市、自治区)2003—2017年的农业用水效率进行评价,并运用Tobit模型对农业用水效率影响因素进行分析。研究发现:中国农业用水综合效率较低,其中,乐观效率呈现小幅度上升趋势,悲观效率呈现下降-上升-下降-上升趋势。不同农业用水区之间用水效率差异较小,高农业用水区农业用水效率最高,中农业用水区次之,低农业用水区最低。第一产业增加值所占地区生产总值比重、节水灌溉技术、水库总库容量与农业用水效率显著正相关,水资源禀赋、地区教育水平与农业用水效率显著负相关。     

The relationship between land use and groundwater resources and quality

Groundwater has three major roles in our environment: providing the baseflow that keeps most rivers flowing all year long, maintaining good river water quality by diluting sewage and other effluents, and as an excellent source of water supply, providing over 75 per cent of the potable supply in some regions. Groundwater is intimately connected with the landscape and land use that it underlies, and most of the landscape and is vulnerable to the anthropogenic activities on the land surface above. Land use affects groundwater resources through changes in recharge and by changing demands for water. Inappropriate land use, particularly poor land management, causes chronic groundwater quality problems. Acute groundwater quality problems are common and arise from unsuitable land use and control, notably through point sources of hazardous chemicals. Current land use instruments have only been designed to address quality issues in groundwater and do not consider recharge. These instruments have been largely ineffective in protecting groundwater from diffuse pollution for several reasons including fragmentation, their general absence of teeth, and their lack of integration into the land use planning system. This paper argues for a more radical approach which would zone land according to its overall vulnerability and resilience to anthropogenic and climatic influence in order to sustainably support the ecosystem services it can deliver. Land use would be matched with the vulnerability of the soil, with geology and water, and with the whole ecosystem. The Water Framework Directive offers a mechanism to do this, but there is no evidence of enough political will to tackle the long-term conflicts between land use and groundwater.