The Fama-French model for estimating the cost of equity capital: The impact of real options of investment projects

We use the classic and modified Fama-French models to estimate the cost of capital of stock portfolios listed on selected markets. We compare four highly developed markets (US, EU, Japanese and global) and the Polish market as an alternative investment opportunity and a CEE emerging market. The performance of the applied procedures for estimating the cost of capital for company projects is examined and cost of capital is assessed with and without real option adjustment. We adjust the portfolios’ returns using the firms’ book-to-market ratios and idiosyncratic volatility as option proxies. The variability of cost of capital is evaluated using bootstrap methods. Our study shows a clear difference between bootstrapped distributions of cost of capital for the tested developed market and the Polish market portfolios. Wider confidence intervals of the estimated cost of capital of the studied Polish portfolios may result from political motivations in managing state-controlled companies. Our findings also indicate a clear difference between the cost of capital for tested portfolios with and without option adjustment. The widths of the estimated confidence intervals increase after option adjustment. The highest/lowest values of the cost of capital both with and without option adjustment are found for the US/Japanese market portfolios.     

基于MCLP模型的个人住房抵押贷款违约风险研究

个人住房抵押贷款一旦出现大规模的违约便会对金融体系的稳定和宏观经济的平稳运行带来很大的负面影响。通过对我国商业银行个人住房抵押贷款真实数据进行分析,分离出可能对贷款履约产生影响的个人基本情况、个人信用状况以及贷款合约等15项指标。在此基础上,使用MCLP模型构建了个人住房抵押贷款违约风险模型,并比较了MCLP模型与传统Logistic模型的预测结果,发现前者具有更高的准确度。最后,基于研究结论提出了相关建议。     

Proposal for calculating regulatory capital requirements for reverse mortgages

In the current context in which many people worry about the sustainability of pension systems, reverse mortgages are gaining popularity because they are a way to supplement elderly people's incomes. However, it is necessary to provide banks with an adequate risk measurement and management procedure for reverse mortgages to increase the commercialization of these products, which will result in greater well-being for the retirement age population. In this paper, we propose a method to measure risk and estimate the regulatory capital requirements for a portfolio of reverse mortgages owned by a financial institution according to Basel II and III. The method considers house price risk, mortality risk and interest rate risk; consequently, regulatory capital requirements need to be computed using a Monte Carlo simulation procedure. The proposed method is general and can accommodate several scenarios for reverse mortgage specifications, including fixed or variable mortgage rates and different income stream schemes (with the lump sum as a particular case). The results for the U.K. show that reverse mortgage providers face higher risk when the lender initially advances a higher amount, with the lump-sum case indicating the highest risk, for relatively younger borrowers, the female population, higher interest rates and floating mortgage rates.     

Interdependent capital structure choices and the macroeconomy

This study shows that capital structure choices of US corporations are interdependent across time. We follow a two-step estimation approach. First, using a large cross-section of firms we estimate year-by-year average capital structure choices, i.e., the average firm’s percentage of new funding that is secured through debt, its term composition, and the percentage of new equity represented by retained earnings. Second, these time series are included in a Factor Augmented Vector Autoregressive model in which three factors representing real economic activity, expected future funding conditions, and prices, are included. We test for the interdependence between optimal capital structure decisions and for the influence exerted by macroeconomic conditions on these decisions. Results show there is a hierarchical order in which firms make capital structure decisions. They first decide on the share of debt out of total new funding they will hire. Conditional on this they decide on the term of their debt and on their earnings retention policy. Of outmost importance, macroeconomic factors are key for making capital structure decisions.     

Some Potential Linkages for Input-Output Analysis with Flow-of-Funds

Three major, interrelated accounting statements, at the frontiers of quantitative economic analysis, are three interrelated systems, namely: (1) National income and product accounts (NIPA), (2) The input-output tableaux, (IO), and (3) flow-of- funds accounts (FF). The third-mentioned system is somewhat less available and used in only limited areas of macroeconomic analysis. This paper is mainly concerned with use of FF accounting systems. This system shows where financial resources originate, and where they go in support of real capital formation. In this respect, interest rates and other market-based financial rates are of key importance. While much macroeconomic analysis is based on the rates that fit the yield curve, showing the interest rate structure over various maturities of debt associated with a given degree of risk. In contrast, the FF accounts throw light on the whole spectrum of interest rates, across maturities and debt qualities. For example, in analysis of the real estate market and funding of capital formation there, it is important to have a full understanding of the course of mortgage rates of different maturities and qualities. In short, it is necessary to develop a full appreciation of supply and demand forces in the mortgage market, which often is not obviously related to movements of the operative rate for monetary policy, such as very short-term inter bank rates or call money rates. This paper attempts to provide material from the flow-of-funds accounts that would make it possible to analyze the movement of relevant mortgage rates or whatever other rates are needed to understand the financing of capital formation in real estate.     

Forecasting and decomposition of portfolio credit risk using macroeconomic and frailty factors

This paper presents a dynamic portfolio credit model following the regulatory framework, using macroeconomic and latent risk factors to predict the aggregate loan portfolio loss in a banking system. The latent risk factors have three levels: global across the entire banking system, parent-sectoral for the intermediate loan sectors and sector-specific for the individual loan sectors. The aggregate credit loss distribution of the banking system over a risk horizon is generated by Monte Carlo simulation, and a quantile estimator is used to produce the aggregate risk measure and economic capital. The risk contributions of the individual sectors and risk factors are measured by combining the Hoeffding decomposition with the Euler capital allocation rule. For the U.S. banking system, we find that the real GDP growth rate, the global and sector-wide frailty risk factors and their spillovers significantly affect loan defaults, and the impacts of the frailty factors are not only economy-wide but also sector-specific. We also find that the frailty risk factors make more significant risk contributions to the aggregate portfolio risk than the macroeconomic factors, while the macroeconomic factors help to improve the accuracy and efficiency of the credit risk forecasts.     

Factors affecting delinquency of household credit in the U.S.: Does consumer sentiment play a role?

In this study, we provide both theoretical and empirical evidence on the determinants of household loan delinquency for home ownership, credit card and auto loans for the U.S. states in a panel framework over a period from 2003 through 2017. In particular, we examine the impact of consumer sentiments on loan delinquency rates. We show that improved current consumer sentiment significantly induce lower mortgage, credit card and automobile loan defaults in the American states subdivided into four different regions. We also find that the higher overall and expected consumer sentiment raise loan delinquencies. Implicit in this finding is the apparently excessive and inappropriate expansion of loans in the U.S. economy in the face of consumers’ optimism, which in turn, provides an intuitive understanding of the circumstances that could precede a depression or outbreak of anomalies in the financial sector. Our general findings further exhibit significant positive effect of unemployment rate and mostly adverse effect of per capita income on mortgage and automobile loan delinquency rates. The results provide some compelling evidence with regard to the effect of consumer confidence on household credit delinquency rates across various states in the U.S. and are robust to alternative measures of income and mortgage rates.     

Measuring Credit Risk of a Bank's Corporate Loan Portfolio Using Advanced Internal Ratings Base Approach

Abstract

The use of technical and advanced approaches in the measurement of credit risk of banks' portfolios has nowadays become a very hot issue. The most recent technical report issued by the Basel Committee in May 2003 has concentrated heavily on the measurement of credit risk using either foundation or advanced Internal Ratings Base (IRB) approaches. This empirical research study attempts to measure credit risk of a bank's corporate loan portfolio, including firms from 10 different Turkish sectors. The monthly observations of the total amount of corporate loans and the total amount of corporate loans at default across various sectors are downloaded from the web page of Central Bank of Turkey (CBT) in a period of 1999-2002. This period covers 47 monthly observations since CBT has captured sectoral corporate loans beginning of 1999. Therefore, the observed sectoral default rates are needed to be simulated to obtain a nicely shaped distribution. Monte Carlo simulation is applied for 1,000 times. Based on the simulated default rates, the expected sectoral default rates are computed. Next, a credit quality rating scale is fitted into sectoral default rates distributions. Finally, the sectoral weights in the whole loan portfolio are multiplied by the expected sectoral default rates matrix, considering cross-sectoral correlations to get the total amount of the bank's credit risk and capital requirement. It is assumed that sectoral monthly default rates are a good representative of the default risk of a sample bank's corporate loan portfolio since no publicly available data on any particular bank's corporate loan portfolio composition exists. Nevertheless, this research may be a good application for measuring the credit risk of banks' corporate loan portfolios using advanced IRB approach.     

我国信贷传导机制有效性研究

本文首先对西方信贷传导机制作了简要描述,后对我国的信贷传导机制进行分析,得出:①金融机构对外贷款量以及各类经济主体的固定资产投资额,全社会零售总额基本上不受利率的影响;金融机构对外贷款量受货币供应量的影响较大;②固定资产投资额,全社会零售总额,国内生产总值受金融机构对外贷款量的影响很大,表明了信贷传导机制是我国目前主要传导渠道。为提高信贷传导的效力,需要:①推进金融机构改革;②发展消费信贷;③建立健全中小企业信用担保体系;④加强社会信用体系建设;⑤解决国有企业资金来源单一的局面;⑥促进利率市场化。     

街区经济视角下的中小企业融资模式研究

针对中小企业融资难的问题,结合复杂适应系统理论分析中小企业融资的复杂性。从街区经济的视角,分析了街区经济的发展对中小企业融资的促进作用,引入了中小企业集合债券融资,联保贷款融资、商圈担保融资、经营权质押融资和知识产权质押融资等融资模式,以西安市莲湖区西大街和海纳汽配城融资为例进行分析,为地方政府扶持中小企业融资提供依据。     

美国次贷危机对我国住房金融的启示

本文从美国次贷危机的形成着手分析其产生的背景,剖析其风险积累过程,进而阐述该危机对美国经济乃至世界经济和中国的影响,并结合日本金融泡沫破裂的教训,总结对我国住房金融发展的启示。     

Structural prepayment risk behavior of the underlying mortgages for residential mortgage life insurance in a developing market

Since 1998 all residential mortgages in China have been adjustable rate mortgages (ARMs). However, the borrower’s motivation for prepayment is different from that in the US or other developed mortgage markets. In the US, mortgage insurance plays an imperative role in covering some of the risk typically faced by housing finance institutions. However, China’s residential mortgage life insurance (RMLI) market is in its infancy. It offers the insured mortgagor a life-insurance death benefit, arising from only illness or accident, settling the insured’s outstanding residential mortgage balance. Prepayments of some RMLIs’ underlying mortgages are observed, leading to a premature termination of both the residential mortgage and the insurance commitment to settle the outstanding mortgage balance even though the insured has not yet passed away. Because such prepayments significantly influence the pricing of the RMLI, it is imperative to know more about the prepayment rate of occurrence and the prepayment characteristics of the underlying residential mortgages in terms of observable macro economic factors, loan specific factors and borrower specific characteristics. Hence, this study investigates the prepayment risk behavior of the underlying mortgages for RMLIs, utilizing a pilot study of 1000 Shanghai residential mortgagors who took up RMLIs between January 1999 and December 2003. This study uses the Cox proportional hazard model to investigate RMLI-mortgage prepayment risk behavior. The resultant hazard rate is dependent on four primary factors: combined monthly income of the co-borrowers, growth in the gross domestic product, number of co-borrowers and initial loan-to-value ratio.     

小额贷款公司存在的问题及建议——对郎溪银达小额贷款公司试点进展情况的调查

本文通过对郎溪银达小额贷款公司试点进展情况的调查,以银达小额贷款公司业务开展情况,分析了小额贷款公司存在的人员素质和贷款技术、资本实力和风险集中、小额贷款经营和监管等方面的问题,并提出了一些相应的解决方法,希望对小额贷款公司存在的问题提供一些建议。     

An asset protection scheme for banks exposed to troubled loan portfolios

We examine a specific portfolio credit derivative, an Asset Protection Scheme (APS), and its applicability as a discretionary regulatory tool to reduce asymmetric information and help restore the capital base of troubled banks. The APS can be a fair-valued contract with an appropriate structure of incentives. We apply two alternative multivariate structural default risk models: the classical Gaussian Merton model and a model based on Normal Inverse Gaussian processes. Using a data set on annual farm level data from 1996 to 2009, we use the Danish agricultural sector as a case study and price an APS on an agricultural loan portfolio. We compute the economic capital for this loan portfolio with and without an APS. Moreover, we illustrate how model risk in the form of parameter uncertainty is reduced when an APS is attached to the loan portfolio.     

A SECURITISED MARKET FOR HUMAN CAPITAL

This paper proposes a simple finance innovation with an income‐contingent repayment system to supplement our current fixed‐interest rate student loan system. Income‐contingent repayments could be pooled and securitised while lenders could sell these lifetime equity‐like human capital securities to investors who seek to diversify their existing portfolios. Without increasing the government's fiscal burden, this innovation would significantly reduce entry barriers facing finance‐constrained college students in a continually rising cost environment.     

我国保险资金运用存在的问题及解决途径分析

文章在阐述我国保险资金运用的政策及发展的基础上,从保险监管、资本市场、管理手段、投资收益、资金运用结构和渠道、投资人才等方面分析了我国保险资金运用存在的问题,提出解决此类问题,应设立证券投资保险基金和投资基础建设,投资不动产,放开抵押贷款和股票投资,加快资本市场建设,完善保险资金运用组织和监管体系,提高投资水平和员工素质等观点。     

企业人力资本价值定量研究

受各种因素的影响,目前对人力资本重要性的认识基本还处于定性阶段,这极大地限制了人力资本的开发和利用。本文着重研究人力资本计量问题,在总结人力资本常用计量方法的基础上,提出了人力资本价值计量的一种新方法———改进完全价值法。在设计计量模型时,以产出为基础,充分注意人力资本与非人力资本在创造剩余价值中的共同作用,把人力资本价值的计量模型构思为:人力资本的补偿价值+利润中属于人力资本的部分,并用柯布-道格拉斯函数对利润进行分割,在此基础上考虑员工类型、企业类型、企业投资、员工服务期限等因素,对模型进行设计。     

Identifying structural VARs from sparse narrative instruments: Dynamic effects of US macroprudential policies

We study identification in Bayesian proxy VARs for instruments that consist of sparse qualitative observations indicating the signs of shocks in specific periods. We propose the Fisher discriminant regression and a non-parametric sign concordance criterion as two alternative methods for achieving correct inference in this case. The former represents a minor deviation from a standard proxy VAR, whereas the non-parametric approach builds on set identification. Our application to US macroprudential policies finds persistent declines in credit volumes and house prices together with moderate declines in GDP and inflation and a widening of corporate bond spreads after a tightening of capital requirements or mortgage underwriting standards.     

人力资本价值计量文献综述

目前人们采用很多种方法对人力资本价值进行计量。本文以国内外现有研究成果为基础,从经济学和会计学对人力资本计量的角度、宏观与微观的层面,对人力资本价值计量方法进行了总结和述评,并就如何进一步解决人力资本价值计量问题提出建议,以期对人力资本价值计量的未来研究提供参考。     

BANK CAPITAL REQUIREMENTS, BUSINESS CYCLE FLUCTUATIONS AND THE BASEL ACCORDS: A SYNTHESIS

Abstract.  In order to survey the mechanisms through which the introduction of Basel II bank capital requirements is likely to accentuate the procyclical tendencies of banking, this paper brings together the theoretical literature on the bank capital channel of propagation of exogenous shocks and the literature on the regulatory framework of capital requirements under the Basel Accords. We conclude that the theoretical models that revisit the bank capital channel under the new accord generally support the Basel II procyclicality hypothesis and that the magnitude of the procyclical effects essentially depends on (i) the composition of banks' asset portfolios, (ii) the approach adopted by banks to compute their minimum capital requirements, (iii) the nature of the rating system used by banks, (iv) the view adopted concerning how credit risk evolves through time, (v) the capital buffers over the regulatory minimum held by the banking institutions, (vi) the improvements in credit risk management and (vii) the supervisor and market intervention under Basel II. The recent events and instability in financial markets all over the world have led the procyclicality issue to enter the agendas of several political international  fora  and some measures to mitigate procyclicality are being put forward. The bank capital channel literature should now play an important role in evaluating their effectiveness.