Experience as a catalyst of export destinations: The ambidextrous connection between international experience and past entrepreneurial experience

This paper examines how different forms of accumulated exploitable knowledge—i.e., export experience with the current firm and past entrepreneurial experience—stimulate export destinations, defined as the number of foreign markets where businesses sell their products/services. The proposed hypotheses are tested on a unique sample of Costa Rican entrepreneurial businesses for 2017. Results from the sequential deductive triangulation analysis (QUAN → qual) reveal that the ambidextrous connection between export experience with the current firm and past entrepreneurial experience is an essential prerequisite for explaining export destination figures. Also, the positive effect of export experience with the current business on export destinations is more prevalent among firms created by serial entrepreneurs. These findings corroborate our argument line on the importance of generative-based learning processes. Furthermore, the results of the qualitative analysis suggest that task-specific international experience and experience gained through past business venturing are relevant micro-foundations of international business expansion in the context of the export destinations of entrepreneurial firms.     

Entrepreneurial orientation,commitment to the Internet and export performance in small and medium sized exporting firms

This paper investigates links between entrepreneurial orientation, commitment to the Internet and export performance in small and medium sized firms. The central argument is that entrepreneurs are more likely to use the Internet to develop export market opportunities, and to have better export performance than less entrepreneurial firms. In testing this proposition, a measure of ‘commitment to the Internet’ was developed and used in a mail survey of UK exporters. The results show that firms with high entrepreneurial orientation are more committed to the Internet and have better export performance than firms with low entrepreneurial orientation.     

Stimulating innovation through corporate venture bases

A common shortcoming, both in the literature on corporate venturing and in practice, is insufficient or no attention to the ability and responsibility of firms to stimulate and influence the creation of innovative ideas that can lead to new ventures. This paper focuses on the initial process of corporate venturing and explores how corporate venture management can stimulate the generation of genuinely original and dynamic ideas by establishing and maintaining a venture base. The following concrete actions are proposed in order to promote and improve the functionality of the venture base: take responsibility, secure access, acquire network capabilities, gain competencies in how to influence the vision and agendas in knowledge-creating networks, contextualize, and invite to discussion at an early stage. The paper is mainly conceptual in nature but draws on 22 semistructured interviews conducted between 2000 and 2002 with managers of corporate venturing departments at six multinational Danish firms in knowledge-intensive industries. The interviews are used to illustrate the main arguments of the paper.     

Entrepreneurial orientation and international commitment

This paper contributes to the development of the field of international corporate entrepreneurship (ICE) by examining the influences that the time lapse between foundation and first international market entry may have on the development of an entrepreneurial orientation (EO). Moreover, the paper highlights the existence of a positive relationship between the development of an entrepreneurial orientation and both internationalization decision and dimensions (degree, scope) in established companies. Based on a sample of 155 Spanish firms, our findings suggest that an entrepreneurial orientation positively influences a firm’s propensity to internationalize activities. The results obtained confirm the idea that fast entry into foreign markets is positively related to the development of an entrepreneurial orientation in established firms, and that firms with a marked entrepreneurial orientation have higher relative international sales and operate in a greater number of foreign countries.     

A process model of entrepreneurial venture creation

The process model of entrepreneurial venture creation developed in this paper is based on interviews with entrepreneurs who started twenty-seven business in a range of industries in upstate New York. The venture creation process described here is an iterative, nonlinear, feedback-driven, conceptual, and physical process.The model includes internally and externally stimulated opportunity recognition, commitment to physical creation, set-up of production technology, organization creation, product creation, linking with markets, and customer feedback. For analytical convenience, the process has been divided into the opportunity stage, the technology set-up and organization-creation stage, and the exchange stage. Business concept, production technology, and product are respectively the core variables representing the three stages.Entrepreneurs introduce differing amounts of novelty at each core variable during venture creation, and the varying amounts of novelty qualitatively distinguish one kind of entrepreneurship from another.For the researcher, the model suggests a better method for specifying samples of entrepreneurial firms. It shows how studies on the context of venture creation can be more specific, and proposes that novelty at the core variables be operationalized as a step toward defining the entrepreneurial content of ventures.For the prospective entrepreneur, the model will serve as a useful road map. It will alert the entrepreneur to the strategic issues at each stage in the venture creation process, particularly when introducing significant novelty at any of the core variables.     

Entrepreneurship and knowledge management in small service-sector firms

The purpose of the paper is to examine the performance of small UK service-sector firms during a period of poor economic conditions in relation to entrepreneurial behaviour and knowledge management. A mail survey of small rural hotels was undertaken. Hotels achieving higher sales growth exhibited an entrepreneurial orientation and have created effective knowledge management systems. The practical implications of the study are that service firms seeking to survive in turbulent times should focus upon adopting entrepreneurial solutions and the creation of effective knowledge management systems. The originality of this study is in providing empirical evidence of the advantages of small UK service-sector firms during the current economic downturn adopting an entrepreneurial orientation in order to sustain business performance.     

How entrepreneurial intentions influence entrepreneurial career choices: The moderating influence of social context

In this paper, we build on social cognitive career theory to examine the relation between entrepreneurial intention and new venture creation (i.e., the entrepreneurial career choice). We model how contextual influences at different levels may favor or inhibit the translation of entrepreneurial intention into new venture creation. Using unique longitudinal data from almost the entire population of Italian university graduates, we are able to assess how the immediate (i.e., the influence of relevant others) and larger context (i.e., organizational and environmental influences) affect new venture creation. Our research contributes to the emerging literature of the intention–behavior link in entrepreneurship.     

The relationship between prior and subsequent new venture creation in the United States: A county level analysis

Minniti [Minniti, M., 2004. Entrepreneurial alertness and asymmetric information in a spin-glass model. Journal of Business Venturing 19 (5), 637-658; Minniti, M., 2005. Entrepreneurship and network externalities. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 57 (1), 1-27] argues that new venture creation decisions are interdependent and that the non-pecuniary network externalities and path dependencies of such decisions influence the geographic concentration of venturing activities. We apply her framework at the county level to study the association between prior and subsequent new venture creation in the U.S. Our findings indicate that there is a non-linear relationship between prior new venture creation and subsequent new venture creation, with venturing activities increasing at an increasing rate based on the amount of prior new venture creation.     

The Internationalization of Small and Medium-Sized Firms

This paper contributes to the existing research by integrating the notions of organizational learning and entrepreneurial orientation into the body of international entrepreneurship. Our primary framework combines learning theory and the new venture theory of internationalization to study the extent to which small and medium-sized companies engage in international activities. We found that the firms’ international learning effort and entrepreneurial orientation are positively associated with internationalization intent whereas domestic learning effort is negatively related with internationalization intent. Overall, our results suggest (1) that intensive knowledge renewal and exploitation regarding foreign markets and the internationalization process itself may increase internationalization by affecting the perceptions of opportunities offered by further international expansion, and (2) that firms with an entrepreneurial mindset may be more likely to develop a long-term, substantial presence in the international arena, compared to firms that are more reactive or conservative.     

Entrepreneurial orientation and start-ups' external financing

This study extends the Pecking Order Theory by investigating the role of start-ups' strategic posture for financial decision-making. Using a contingency approach, it proposes that a start-up's entrepreneurial orientation differently affects the costs and benefits associated with external debt and equity financing, and thereby its use of the respective financing forms; with the strength of these relationships depending on industry-level risk and venture development stage. The study tests and confirms these hypotheses on a sample of 4456 German start-ups. It advances the entrepreneurial finance literature by taking strategic posture and its contingencies into account, and adds insight in the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and firm performance. It also provides valuable practical implications for start-up founders and external financiers.     

Not so silent partners: Exploring the interconnected roles of entrepreneurs and their spouses

When launching their ventures, the majority of entrepreneurs are married. Yet, our understanding of the spousal influence on the entrepreneurial process remains limited. This is surprising considering the spouse represents one of the most influential figures in an individual's life. Through an inductive qualitative analysis of 18 spouse-entrepreneur pairs, we explore the interactive nature of venture-related roles between the spousal couple and how these spousal roles evolve over the course of the venture. Our study shows that the dynamic alignment between entrepreneurial roles and spousal roles allows the venture to progress through various stages of firm innovation, creation, and growth. Thus, our paper extends the broader literature on roles during the venturing process as we illuminate the “not-so-silent role” of spouses in entrepreneurship.     

Entrepreneurship,export orientation,and economic growth

In this paper the relationship between a country’s prevalence of new ventures and its rate of economic growth is investigated, while taking into account new ventures’ export orientation. It is generally acknowledged that new venture creation as well as export activity may both be important strategies for achieving national economic growth. However, to our knowledge no attempt has been made to investigate empirically the role of export-driven new ventures in economic growth. We focus on the national level and use data for a sample of 34 countries over the period 2002–2008. Our results suggest that, on top of a positive relation between entrepreneurial activity in general and subsequent macroeconomic growth, there is an additional positive effect of export-oriented early-stage entrepreneurship in higher-income countries. However, there is no such additional effect in lower-income countries.     

Networks in Entrepreneurship: The Case of High-technology Firms

The value of networks as an integral part of the explanation of entrepreneurial success is widely acknowledged. However, the network perspective does not specify the role of networks in the emergence and early growth of a venture. We have distinguished three entrepreneurial processes in new venture development, i.e. discovery of opportunities, securing resources, and obtaining legitimacy, which are of importance for survival and performance. This paper examines how these processes are influenced by strong and/or weak ties and whether the degree of innovation (incremental versus radical) acts as a contingency factor in the way network ties support entrepreneurial processes. In this explorative study three cases on high technology firms in The Netherlands provide empirical material enabling us to develop a number of propositions on the network effect, in particular the mix of strong and weak ties, on the three entrepreneurial processes.     

Venture capital and high technology entrepreneurship

Venture capital clearly plays an important role in high technology entrepreneurship. The purpose of this article is to explain the differences among various venture capital complexes focusing on where venture capital is important to innovation and entrepreneurship and conversely where it is not. We do so through an empirical and historical examination of the seven most important venture capital complexes: California (San Francisco/ Silicon Valley), Massachusetts (Boston), New York, Illinois (Chicago), Texas, Connecticut, and Minnesota (Minneapolis).We establish a three-part tripartite typology for explaining the differences between these venture capital complexes: 1) technology-oriented complexes are located close to concentrations of high technology intensive businesses, invest most of their funds locally, and are net attractors of capital; 2) finance-oriented complexes are located around financial institutions and export their capital; and 3) hybrid complexes mix characteristics of both technology and finance-oriented venturing.Our findings have a series of important practical implications. Although venture capital is not absolutely necessary to facilitate high technology entepreneurship, well-developed venture capital networks provide tremendous incentives for entrepreneurship by lowering the difficulties of entering an industry. Venture capitalists use both their experience and their contacts to reduce many of the information and opportunity costs associated with new business formation. The importance of contact networks and information to both deal flow and investment monitoring goes a low way toward explaining why venture capitalists cluster tightly together. The availability of venture capital also attracts entrepreneurs and high quality personnel to a region creating a virtuous circle of new enterprise formation, innovation, and economic development.Private, nonprofit, and subsidized public efforts aimed at providing venture capital and stimulating high technology entrepreneurship must confront the fact that venture capital alone will not magically generate entrepreneurship and economic development. It is important that such efforts recognize the nonfinancial side of venture investing and attract experienced personnel who can tap into established entrepreneurial networks and secure coinvestors. More significantly, establishing public venture funding in an area lacking the requisite entrepreneurial climate or technology infrastructure may create a “catch 22” situation where locally oriented funds invest in bad deals or where venture capital is simply exported to established high technology regions.     

Entrepreneurial orientation,export channel selection,and export performance of SMEs

Although research indicates that the export channel a firm uses can significantly impact export performance, it is unclear how firms should select this channel. Models of export channel choice tend to concentrate on transaction cost efficiencies, ignoring value adding orientations that entrepreneurial firms may possess. In this paper we develop and test the theoretical notion that in addition to transaction costs, differences in entrepreneurial orientation (EO) influence export channel choice and as a consequence export performance. Using data from a sample of Dutch and Italian SMEs we find that adding EO (moderated by institutional distance) significantly improves our model of export channel choice. Further we find that firms selecting export channels that align not only with transaction cost factors but also firm level EO, moderated by institutional distance, have higher export market performance. Thus, our study adds to and extends the export channel choice literature and provides interesting new insights into how EO helps firms create more successful export operations.     

Hidden ties in international new venturing: The case of portfolio entrepreneurship

A hitherto neglected phenomenon in international new venturing is portfolio entrepreneurship, which occurs when entrepreneurs found, own, manage and control more than one business at a time, with ownership of the new venture being distinct from that of the existing business ventures. This study introduces the phenomenon of portfolio entrepreneurship in international new venturing through a longitudinal study of a cluster of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Tasmania, Australia, where 6 of 11 firms in the cluster were international new ventures (INVs). The pattern of international portfolio entrepreneurship pursued by the Tasmanian entrepreneurs and coupling between firms is described. Key findings include the ability of portfolio entrepreneurs to leverage high-discretion slack resources, positive legitimacy spillovers, and learning effects and experimentation across loosely coupled INVs in the portfolio. The findings also identify dysfunctional elements of portfolio entrepreneurship, and cast doubt over the conventional use of ‘the firm’ as the focal unit of analysis in INV studies. A particular contribution of this study is to remind us of the richness and pluralism inherent in international new venturing.     

Venture capital reputation: a blessing or a curse for entrepreneurial firm innovation—a contingent effect of industrial distance

This study investigates whether venture capital reputation is a blessing or a curse for entrepreneurial firm innovation by using data from 1553 observations of venture capital investments on entrepreneurial firms in China’s New Over-the-Counter (OTC) Market. Advantages that venture capital brings to entrepreneurial firms have been widely acknowledged in extant research. However, our research emphasizes the potential resource outflows rather than inflows when firms are embedded in a shared reputable venture capital, and finds that the curse effect of venture capital reputation on entrepreneurial firms is manifested. Furthermore, we develop the concept of venture capital “intra-industrial reputation” and “extra-industrial reputation” to give a contingent answer to the “blessing or curse” question. The conclusions are drawn indicating that the curse effect is contingent on industrial distance. Venture capital intra-industrial reputation is positively linked to entrepreneurial firm innovation, whereas extra-industrial reputation exerts a strong negative impact, which is responsible for the curse effect.     

The role of entrepreneurial marketing in new technology ventures first product commercialisation

This paper sheds light on the importance of entrepreneurial marketing (EM) in the context of new technology ventures (NTVs) first product commercialisation. This study explores the role of EM expressed as the degree of complementarity between entrepreneurial orientation (EO) and market orientation (MO) in driving firms’ innovation activities including competence exploration and exploitation in achieving first product performance (FPP). The results of a survey drawn from Indian NTVs identify a significant effect for the complementarity of EO–MO on exploratory and exploitative innovation activities. Furthermore, the findings indicate a positive effect of both exploratory and exploitative activities in enhancing FPP and the contingency role of marketing capabilities (MCs) in enhancing the impact of competence exploration and exploitation in first product commercialisation.     

Efficiency and effectiveness of small retailers: The role of customer and entrepreneurial orientation

While it is generally agreed that a customer and entrepreneurial orientation enhance company performance in large multi-national organizations, relatively little is known about how these variables influence the small retailers that form a substantial part of national economic well-being. This study investigates the potential influences of these factors on the performance of small retailers in Switzerland, because this nation has long had a reputation for creativity, innovation and a customer focus. Performance is viewed as a two dimensional concept including an effectiveness and an efficiency perspective. Data for this study were collected through personal interviews from 261 SMEs. While customer orientation is found to be positively related to both efficiency and effectiveness, results only show a positive impact from entrepreneurial orientation on effectiveness. At the same time, entrepreneurial orientation is found to be a driver of customer orientation, and thus having an indirect impact also on efficiency for the small retail firms. All in all, the study shows that small retailers do indeed put an emphasis on both customer and entrepreneurial orientation in spite of their limited resources. It also stresses that this will increase their competitive advantage. In the light of existing literature, limitations and future research directions are subsequently addressed.     

Explaining Organizational Export Performance by Single and Combined International Business Competencies

This study explores relationships between export performance and international business competencies (international orientation, export market orientation and international entrepreneurial orientation), and interactions between the competencies. Data from on‐site structured interviews with 159 owners and managers of exporting firms from different economic sectors show direct relationships between the competencies and export performance. However, analyses of the effects of interactions between the competencies and export performance show mixed results. The findings suggest developing the identified competencies to increase export performance, but if this would be exclusively based on the direct relationships between the competencies and export performance, results may be suboptimal.