论宋代边疆民族地区的农业政策

宋代在边疆民族地区采取了与内地州军不同的农业政策。在土地利用方面，一贯奉行的是保护蕃民土地占有，禁止蕃汉之间进行土地买卖和转让。另有一部分官田与闲田，是用来分配给招募的兵员人户或无地的蕃汉民户耕种；宋朝对边区民族的赋税征收也采取宽大政策。根据各边区民族的经济状况和政治系属关系的差别，宋朝税制分为定额税、不定额税以及免纳赋税三种形式。这些政策，是封建王朝维护对边民族统治的政治需要，但在客观上有利于边区的稳定，促进了边区农业经济的发展。     

美国与日本的农地流转制度

美国家庭农场制基础上的市场调节美国的农地是农场主私有的,土地私人所有权的原始取得主要源于购买或政府的无偿赠送,无论购买或赠送获得的土地所有权,其产权边界都是非常明晰的。因此,美国的农地买卖和出租均很自由,土地转让的主要方式是租佃制,拥有土地而不自己经营的人自找使用者出租,或通过中介出租。出租的形式主要有固定地租和分成地租两种,买卖或出租的价格由交易双方协议采取某种方式确定。     

台湾土地估价与地价管理

土地估价方法及应用台湾土地估价的基本方法主要有：买卖实例比较法、收益资本化法、成本法和土地开发分析法等。由于台湾土地估价受日本影响很大，因此台湾在土地估价实务中主要是采用买卖实例比较法。近年来，随着日本地价泡沫的破灭，台湾和日本一样，也在反思对买卖实例比较法过于倚重的不当之处，开始重视收益资本化法等方法的应用。买卖实例比较法。在实际应用中，台湾采用的是间接比较法，即在比较修正过程中要借助假定的标准宗地，首先把比较实例的各项条件进行标准化修正，修正到所在区域标准宗地的条件，再将该标准宗地进行区域修…     

依法加强土地市场的监督管理

随着社会主义市场经济体制的建立和土地使用制度改革的深入，土地市场得到迅速发展。土地作为重要资源和资产在市场经济中发挥着重要作用，但是在近几年的时间里，一些地方由于土地管理机构的削弱，土地监察管理工作不能到位，致使目前自发的土地交易活动相当活跃，大量的划拨土地使用权自发地进入市场，如土地买卖，以地易房，以买卖房屋为名伴随着土地使用权的转移，把地价打入房价等，这歪风又有所抬头，造成土地资源的浪费和土地资产的大量流失，不仅使土地所有权不能在经济上得以实现，而且加剧了社会的不平等竞争和分配的不公，严重影…     

新光,新建村承包土地使用权流转的调查与思考

随着农村商品经济的发展和市场经济的建立,广大农民以地为本的传统观念和效益意识不断更新,农村劳动力开始向二、三产业大量转移,农民已开始出让和转让承包土地使用权。最近,我们对大石桥市水源镇新光、新建村承包土地使用权流转情况进行了专题调查。 一、承包土地使用权流转的现状和形式 新光、新建村既是鲜族村,又是水田村。两村共有2238人,830名劳动力,522户,6130亩耕地。1984年两村实行家庭联产承包责任制,耕地人均到户。随着农村二、三产业的发展,1989年出现了承包土地使用权流转趋势,打破了家家包地,户户种田的局面。到目前,两村有60％的户部分或全部转包和转让出承包土地使用权,转包和转让耕地面积2580亩,占耕地面积的42％。主要形式有:     

拍卖“四荒”中的地籍管理要跟上

拍卖“四荒”中的地籍管理要跟上武玉芬拍卖“四荒地”的地籍管理，是对拍卖“四荒也”管理的重要环节。辽宁省凌源市土地局通过加强对“四荒地”拍卖的地籍管理工作，制定了怕卖“四荒地”的地籍管理标准和规程，在全市实施，保护了双方的舍法权益，消除了双方的后顾之忧...     

搞好土地流转活跃农村经济

湖南省平江县有２７个乡镇，７７８个村，２２８８１９户农户，耕地面积６９９８１６亩，其中水田５６７５４３亩，旱土１３２２７３亩。该县把延长土地承包期３０年与搞活土地使用权流转机制有机地结合起来，使全县农村经济得以健康、稳定地发展。目前，农村土地流转涉及到２７个乡镇６９８个村，占总村数９１％，土地流转面积达１７．１６万亩，占土地承包总面积的２４．５％。全县经营水田５０亩以上的农户４３户，耕地面积达４６００亩，有３３％的农村劳动力转入二、三产业。该县土地流转的形式大体有４种形式。一是土地托管。由村集体…     

国外监管农地流转市场四种模式

美国:自由式的政府监管 美国是自由市场经济国家,土地分为私人所有、联邦政府所有和州政府所有三种.美国农地市场是在完全的市场经济条件下形成的,政府通过经济手段和法制手段管理农地流转,农地市场是一种"准完全竞争性"市场.法律保护农地所有权不受侵犯,允许私人土地买卖和出租,政府一般不予干涉.出售土地时,买卖双方根据当时农地的市场价值评估买卖价格,达成买卖协议,既可由买卖双方自己协商,也可聘请私人估价公司,然后双方共同到县政府办理变更登记手续,以实现土地产权的转移,完成交易.     

“政府主导的中国城镇化”呼之欲出

迄今为止我国惟有国有土地才能合法进入市场流转.这件事情本来似乎并没有清楚的"顶层设计",因为早年开放引入外资之际,深圳和珠三角一带转让给外资企业利用的土地厂房,不仅有国有土地,也有大量农村集体土地.可是当实践经验上升为政策和法律时,"国有土地"与"集体土地"双轨流转的现实,却被净化为"唯有国有土地才可以流转"的单轨.个中的一波三折,我们也探查过:1988年全国人大通过了对宪法第10条的修正案:"任何组织或个人不得侵占、买卖或者以其他形式非法转让土地,土地的使用权可以依照法律的规定转让"(去掉了"特区国有"的限制,变成"土地的使用权"皆可"依法转让").可是再过两年,国务院于1990年颁布的《城镇国有土地使用权出让和转让暂行条例》,却仅仅只为"城镇国有土地的转让"提供了法律根据.于是,尽管农村集体土地的转让,包括非农地的转让在实际上早就无日无之,但在合法框架之内,却唯有国有土地流转才具有法律地位.至于为什么实践的法律表达会变成如此,根据我们探查:土地融资的机会集中在城市,而根据1982年宪法,"城市土地"再不是公、私并立,也不存在国有和集体所有两种公有制,而是全部的"属于国家所有".     

调解协议不合法

调解协议不合法笔者认为，砖瓦厂与李庄村所达成的这份调解协议是不合法的。主要理由如下：我国宪法原来规定，“任何组织或个人不得侵占、买卖、出租或者以其他形式非法转让土地”。１９８８年４月１２日七届人大一次会议对该项内容作了修正，规定“国有土地和集体所有的...     

Bilateral Information Asymmetry in the Design of an Agri‐Environmental Policy: An Application to Peatland Retirement in Norway

Agriculture is a significant source of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. GHG mitigation through agri‐environmental programmes could be important in achieving emission reduction targets under the 2015 UN climate agreement. This study uses the principal‐agent model to examine a peatland retirement programme to reduce agricultural emissions in Norway. The focus is on the role of the government's private information in programme design. Two cases are examined. First, optimal contracts are derived when farmers have private information about the costs of implementing peat land retirement, but the government reveals its information on the resulting public benefits through differentiated contracts. This corresponds to the standard targeting strategy with one‐sided information asymmetry. In the second case, an informed principal model developed by Maskin and Tirole in a 1990 study is employed to address bilateral information asymmetry. Using the informed principal model, the government offers the same menu of contracts to farmers in order not to disclose information on the public benefits from land retirement. Empirical results show that the government can achieve a higher payoff by using a pooling offer.     

Auctions for conservation contracts: an empirical examination of Victoria's BushTender trial

The present paper proposes that markets for nature conservation on private land are missing because of the problem of asymmetric information. An auction of conservation contracts was designed to reveal hidden information needed to facilitate meaningful transactions between landholders and government. The present paper describes the key elements of auction and contract design employed and the results obtained from a pilot auction of conservation contracts run in two regions of Victoria. The pilot demonstrated that it was possible to create at least the supply side of a market for nature conservation and in conjunction with a defined budget, prices were discovered and resources allocated through contracts with landholders. The present paper compares a discriminative price auction with a hypothetical fixed-price scheme showing that an auction could offer large cost savings to governments interested in nature conservation on private land. The paper identifies some important design problems that would need to be solved before auctions could be applied more broadly including: multiple complementary outcomes, reserve prices, sequential auction design and contract design. Nevertheless, the paper does show that auctioning conservation contracts for environmental outcomes is an important new policy mechanism that deserves closer examination.     

Measuring the production efficiency of alternative land tenure contracts in a mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia

In this paper, we test the hypothesis that land held under varying configurations of property rights will be farmed at different levels of production efficiency. Production data were collected from 477 plots in a fairly productive, mixed fanning system in the Ethiopian highlands. Interspatial measures of total factor productivity, based on the Divisia index, were used to measure the relative production efficiency of three informal and less secure land contracts (rented, share-cropped and borrowed) relative to lands held under formal contract witli the Ethiopian government. Although the informally-contracted lands are farmed 10-16% less efficiently, the analysis indicates that farmers of such lands actually apply inputs more, rather than less, intensively (i.e., more inputs per unit of land). The gap in total factor productivity thus results from the inferior quality of inputs (or lack of skills in applying them) rather than a lack of incentive to allocate inputs to mixed crop-livestock farming. For this reason we find no empirical basis to support the hypothesis that land tenure is a constraint to agricultural productivity.     

Land use determines interest in conservation easements among private landowners

Protection of private lands through conservation easements has garnered recent attention from scientists and conservation practitioners. Questions remain, however, about the specific characteristics and activities driving landowners’ interest in conservation easements and their willingness to consider granting them. Resolving these questions could improve prospects for private land conservation by helping land conservation organizations identify and better understand potential easement grantors. We conducted a survey of 513 private landowners in a peri-urban fringe area in the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York, USA. Logistic regression analysis returned seven significant predictors of landowner willingness to consider granting conservation easements. Participation in environmental organizations, recreational land-use activities, wild food gathering, and land entitlement were the strongest factors promoting interest in conservation easements. Long-term residency, male gender, and hunting or fishing, on the other hand, significantly decreased the likelihood of considering conservation easements. The findings suggest that landowners most interested in to granting conservation easements are active land users. Notably, among all the land-use activities reported, the most frequent and the most important in predicting interest in conservation easements are those undertaken for recreational and subsistence, rather than economic, purposes. This suggests that while easements might be appropriate for working lands, their role in reconciling land use with conservation requires a flexible definition of work.     

明代四川州县田赋征收考察

本文立足于四川州县研究，运用省内外地方志史料，采取横向与纵向比较方法，探讨明代农业的发展和田赋征收，从而揭示明代前、中、后三个时期中，四川的平均每亩征粮额仅次于苏、松二府而位居全国前列，是重要的产粮省区。四川的田赋征收以中央政策为指导原则，由于州县经济发展的不平衡性，平原与丘陵、汉区与少数民族地区实行不同的田赋征收政策；民田多，官田数较少，因此明中期受土地兼并风潮影响较小，田土和征粮数下降幅度低于全国平均下降幅度；明中期全国出现一系列简化赋役征收的改革措施，四川也出现“一把连”等征收之法。诸项新变革皆是万历年间张居正“一条鞭法”改革的先声，也是其推行的基础；四川征收的财赋，起运多为边仓，有力地巩固了西南边疆的稳定，促进了与藏区的茶马贸易，对发展民族地区经济具有积极意义。     

Investment in soil conservation in northern Ethiopia: the role of land tenure security and public programs

A double hurdle statistical analysis of 250 farms in the Tigray region of Ethiopia reveals different causal factors for soil conservation adoption versus intensity of use. Farmers' reasons for adopting soil conservation measures vary sharply between stone terraces and soil bunds. Long‐term investments in stone terraces were associated with secure land tenure, labour availability, proximity to the farmstead and learning opportunities via the existence of local food‐for‐work (FFW) projects. By contrast, short‐term investments in soil bunds were strongly linked to insecure land tenure and the absence of local food‐for‐work projects. Public conservation campaigns on private plots reduced adoption of both stone terraces and soil bunds. Whereas capacity factors largely influenced the adoption decision, expected returns carried more influence for the intensity of stone terrace adoption (measured as metres of terrace per hectare). More stone terracing was built where fertile but erodible silty soils in higher rainfall areas offered valuable yield benefits. Intensity of terracing was also greater in remote villages where limited off‐farm employment opportunities reduced construction costs. These results highlight the importance of the right kind of public interventions. Direct public involvement in constructing soil conservation structures on private lands appears to undermine incentives for private conservation investments. When done on public lands, however, public conservation activities may encourage private soil conservation by example. Secure land tenure rights clearly reinforce private incentives to make long‐term investments in soil conservation.     

Endogenous institutional innovation and agroindustrialization on the Peruvian coast

This paper presents an analysis of endogenous institutional innovations that have recently emerged in the agroindustrial zone of Chincha, on the coast of Peru. These innovations include: (1) contracts between agroindustrial firms and large farmers, introduced by the firms themselves to assure timely delivery and compliance with strict requirements implied by the emerging demanding quality and safety standards for agro‐export of processed asparagus; (2) management services exchanged for labor supervision and land collateral in share tenancy contracts between a management company and “farmer companies” of small cotton farmers. These contracts introduced by the management company illustrate those described theoretically by Eswaran and Kotwal [Am. Econ. Rev. 75 (3), 352–367]. The nature and importance of these institutional changes are twofold: (1) They were induced institutional innovations driven by the requirements of agroindustrialization itself. (2) Together they had ambiguous employment and income impacts (tending to the negative). On the one hand, the emergence of asparagus and firm‐farm contracts reduced employment through exclusion of small farms and shifts to capital‐intensive crops. On the other hand, the reinforcement of smallholder cotton and the emergence of farmer companies increased employment and income of smallholders. The institutional innovation allowed them to reduce risk and increase profits and thus access some of the benefits of agroindustrialization and globalization. While processing firm‐farm contracts are common in Peru, as is the presence of NGOs bringing subsidized credit, the private management firm innovation is rare and new in Peru and apparently also in the region, and of great interest. In fact, policymakers and NGOs have recently discovered that this innovation is taking place and are asking hard questions about whether this innovation can and will be diffused. The interest in the private for‐profit institutional change is sharpened by growing doubts about how economically sustainable and widespread a response NGO help can be to small farmers in maintaining their participation in income‐enhancing agroindustrialization. Moreover, with changes in land laws and markets the fluidity of the situation is apparent, with agroindustrial firms even starting to ask themselves whether contracts with large farms are necessary and best.     

What does Malawi's Fertiliser Programme do to Private Sector Fertiliser Sales? A Quasi‐Experimental Field Study

Malawi implemented reforms to its Farm Input Subsidy Program (FISP) during the 2015/16 agricultural season that allowed certain large‐scale, private sector fertiliser dealers to sell subsidised fertiliser at their network of retail stores in select districts on a pilot basis. At the same time, small‐scale independent fertiliser dealers were excluded from participating in the pilot. We use a unique panel dataset of large‐scale corporate fertiliser dealers and small‐scale independent fertiliser dealers collected before and after the policy change to estimate the impacts of the FISP on those who participated in the pilot and those who did not, using a difference‐in‐differences estimator. Results indicate that large‐scale dealers who sold the FISP fertiliser under the pilot programme in 2015/16 did not have their commercial sales either crowded‐in or crowded‐out by the FISP pilot. Instead, the average volume of fertiliser sold at each of their retail stores increased by 59% due to an increase in subsidised fertiliser sales. Conversely, small‐scale independent fertiliser dealers who were not allowed participate in the pilot had their commercial sales crowded‐out by the programme. They experienced a 60% decline in the volume of commercial fertiliser sales on average at each store. This implies that the FISP reforms have mainly benefited large‐scale fertiliser dealers who sell 90% of the fertiliser in Malawi, but caused some harm to the many small‐scale independent fertiliser dealers who sell about 10% of the private sector's fertiliser in Malawi, but often operate their businesses in more remote areas.     

Registration of private interests in land in a community lands policy setting: An exploratory study in Meru district,Tanzania

Current Tanzanian land law offers registration of private interests in land in the form of Certificates of Customary Rights of Occupancy (CCROs) within a broader community lands approach. We conducted qualitative research on the issuance of CCROs along a mountain slope transect in Meru district in northeast Tanzania. This area features intensified smallholder agriculture that evolutionary theory suggests is well adapted for registration of private interests in land. It also features strong customary authorities of the sort that legal pluralism theory suggests may lead to property relations that are not singular and evolving but multiple and co-existing. We found that tenure was highly individualized and local demand for CCROs was expressed in a context of both agricultural intensification and nascent urbanisation. Nevertheless, due to high cost and coordination constraints, this demand did not deliver widespread registration. While CCROs were perceived as useful to resolve land conflicts and put up as collateral for loans, they were not essential as a variety of alternative approaches were in place. In this forum shopping, plurality was not in itself a problem and individuals increasingly chose quasi-formal paper authorisations over customary rituals. Based on our findings, we recommend that land administration systems more explicitly build on existing quasi-formal practice, and that community lands approaches include a diversity of national programmes tailored to different local community circumstances.     

The application of the social tenure domain model (STDM) to family land in Trinidad and Tobago

Family land is a form of communal tenure found in some of the countries of the English-speaking Caribbean inclusive of Trinidad and Tobago. It has been problematic to administer, is sometimes the source of land conflict and litigation, it has been seen as the cause of many land-related problems such as land degradation and fragmentation, and has therefore been targeted for eradication by land title registration programmes. Informal occupation of many years standing on state and private land is also widespread in Trinidad and Tobago. Recording the existence of these extant extralegal but legitimate rights would go a long way to improving the land administration and the security of tenure on these lands.