Disparities in ICT adoption: A multidimensional approach to study the cross-country digital divide

This paper presents a cross-country study on the determinants of information and communication technology (ICT) diffusion using multivariate analysis techniques to capture the relative and multidimensional character of digital divide. Using canonical correlation analysis, the differences detected between groups of countries both in terms of ICT patterns and in terms of the factors explaining each are compared. The results provide the ability to distinguish between different patterns of ICT adoption that can be explained primarily by variables associated with differences in development levels. In countries registering higher levels of ICT adoption, the digitalization pattern is explained by GDP, service sector, education, and governmental effectiveness. In contrast, in developing countries, population age and urban population are positively associated with the ICT adoption, while Internet costs impact negatively. The results might be useful in finding and implementing the most suitable telecommunication and development policies for each case.     

The tribal digital divide: Extent and Explanations

This paper documents home Internet access, types of Internet access, connection speeds, and prices for basic home Internet in tribal areas of the United States. We find that the share of households with Internet access is 21 percentage points lower in tribal areas than in neighboring non-tribal areas. When compared to these non-tribal areas, download speeds, whether measured using fixed or mobile broadband networks, are approximately 75% slower in tribal areas, while the lowest price for basic Internet services in tribal areas is 11% higher. Regression techniques reveal that traditional cost factors such as terrain and population density fully explain the price gap but account for only a fraction of the tribal differences in Internet access and connection speeds. Income differences are strong predictors of Internet access but do not affect connection speeds. A sizable amount of the variation in the access and home connection gap between tribal and non-tribal is left unexplained. We conclude with a discussion of how federal broadband programs have penetrated Indian Country, how tribal-specific factors are related to the variation in Internet access within Indian Country, and the potential policy implications of our findings.     

Economic growth and broadband access: The European urban-rural digital divide

This paper estimates the regional effects of high-speed broadband coverage on economic growth in a panel of 1348 regions across all European Union Member States between 2011 and 2018. We distinguish between different connectivity speed levels by aggregating the available regional data across all existing broadband technologies, and investigate how regional differences in the contribution of broadband coverage to real economic growth can quantitatively explain the persistence of the European urban-rural digital divide. In order to make our results robust to endogeneity and disaggregated data availability issues, we employ a bootstrap-based bias correction for the dynamic fixed effects estimator. We find that expansions in the provision of lower-speed broadband access accelerated annual per capita growth in both urban and rural regions through diminishing returns to scale, but that the effects were weaker in those regions characterized by larger ruralization. High-speed broadband coverage, on the contrary, could only be significantly related to rural economic growth and had no impact within their urban counterparts. We find evidence that the costs of these high-speed rural connectivity expansions had not yet been offset, but that they exhibit increasing returns to scale with cut-off levels nearing full coverage. These results indicate that the high-speed digital expansion of rural Europe is a potential gamechanger for further rural development policies through its role as a general-purpose infrastructure, and consequently argue in favour of increased efforts to close the urban-rural digital gap.     

The digital divide problem: An economic interpretation of the Japanese experience

This study presents an economic analysis of Japan's attempt to address the geographical digital divide problem for broadband and mobile telephone services. To receive broadband service local inhabitants make voluntary contributions, which are matched by a municipal subsidy. The approach is effective in terms of economic efficiency and equity. Importantly, as fixed broadband service is provided locally the benefits are limited to local inhabitants. By contrast, mobile service is provided via a spectrum user fee system. That is, for mobile telecommunication services, no universal service fund exists. The underlying rationale is that subscribers are beneficiaries and commercial decision-making should be left to mobile operators.     

Internet diffusion in sub-Saharan Africa: A cross-country analysis

In this paper, the notions of digital inequality and digital divide have been employed to describe two levels of Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) access. On the one hand is the inequality of access to the cluster of technology measured by Internet use and on the other are the confluence of skills and other resources that differentiate countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Using cross-country data, hypotheses are tested within a simultaneous equation system. The paper confirms the vital importance of telecommunications infrastructure represented by the high correlation of telephone density with Internet irrespective of per capita income level of the country.     

The gap not only closes: Resistance and reverse shifts in the digital divide in Russia

The reduction of the digital divide due to the availability of the Internet and the improvement of skills is accompanied by reverse and resistance trends associated with the influence of socio-demographic and economic characteristics of users. In this paper, we estimate the volume and dynamics of the digital divide in access and use of the Internet in Russia by key social groups according to a longitudinal survey for 2008–2018. We found that along with the reducing of the digital divide, its gaps still remain. The greatest polarization is associated with the income, age, and type of residence of the respondents. The most vulnerable social groups on access to ICTs and Internet use are the low-income, the elderly, citizens with disabilities, and those living in rural areas. The reverse shifts in the digital divide were recorded mainly in relation to the Internet usage by age between the middle-age and youth and by gender. In addition, we pointed out the most resistance social groups to reduce the digital divide in the period under review, in particular, by income and type of residence of the respondents. The findings contribute to an understanding of the dynamics and social consequences of the digital divide and can be taken into account in social policy and measures.     

The end justifies the definition: The manifold outlooks on the digital divide and their practical usefulness for policy-making

Based on the theory of the diffusion of innovations through social networks, the article discusses the main approaches researchers have taken to conceptualize the digital divide. The result is a common framework that addresses the questions of who (e.g. divide between individuals, countries, etc.), with which kinds of characteristics (e.g. income, geography, age, etc.), connects how (mere access or effective adoption), to what (e.g. phones, Internet, digital TV, etc.). Different constellations in these four variables lead to a combinatorial array of choices to define the digital divide. This vast collection of theoretically justifiable definitions is contrasted with the question of how the digital divide is defined in practice by policy makers. The cases of the United States, South Korea, and Chile are used to show that many diverse actors with dissimilar goals are involved in confronting the digital divide. Each of them takes a different outlook on the challenge. This leads to the question if this heterogeneity is harmful and if countries that count with a coherent national strategy and common outlook on digital development do better than others. It is shown that the effect of a coherent vision is secondary to tailor-made sector-specific efforts. On the contrary, a one-size-fits-all outlook on a multifaceted challenge might rather be harmful. This leads to the conclusion that it is neither theoretically feasible, nor empirically justifiable to aim for one single definition of the digital divide. The digital divide is best defined in terms of a desired impact. Since those are diverse, so are the definitions of the challenge. The best that can be done is to come up with a comprehensive theoretical framework that allows for the systematic classification of different definitions, such as the one presented in this article.     

The broadband digital divide and the economic benefits of mobile broadband for rural areas

Broadband is becoming increasingly important to national economies and the personal lives of users. However, broadband availability and adoption are not diffusing in rural and urban areas at the same rates. This article updates the rural broadband digital divide, with special attention paid to mobility. Empirical estimations of broadband provision and usage in the US show that rural areas have fewer high-speed fixed and mobile providers but more slower-speed fixed providers than urban areas. While rural availability of mobile broadband is lower than in urban areas, it still helps fill in gaps in fixed broadband coverage in rural areas. The rural gap in fixed broadband usage remains, but the mobile broadband usage gap disappears after controlling for household demographics. The raw broadband usage gaps between rural and urban households are proportionally greater for low-income households. The potential for mobile broadband to benefit rural areas through economic development is also examined.     

家庭收入、日常消费支出与用电量的关联关系

实行居民生活阶梯电价是节约能源、保护环境及建立公平负担电价机制的重要途径,家庭收入、日常消费支出与用电量的关联关系是制定居民生活阶梯电价方案的重要依据。首先,针对居民的家庭月平均收入、家庭月平均消费支出及家庭月平均电费支出对天津市居民进行了抽样问卷调查并分2步对调查数据进行预处理;其次,运用绘制散点图的方法初步确定了家庭月平均收入、家庭月平均消费支出与家庭月平均用电量的正相关关系,并在此基础上分别建立了家庭月平均收入、家庭月平均消费支出与家庭月平均用电量的回归方程;最后,对所建立方程的有效性进行了统计检验。分析结果可为居民生活阶梯电价电量的分档以及各档电价水平的确定提供理论支持。     

Housing,Wealth, Income and Consumption: China and Homeownership Heterogeneity

Impacts on consumer spending in urban China associated with housing value, housing equity, financial assets and household income are evaluated using longitudinal data from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) survey. Findings suggest that the housing wealth effect on household consumption in China is much larger than has been shown for developed economies. The larger impact is prospectively related to structural limits on investing which favor real estate ownership, along with the dominant position of housing in total household wealth. We also find that a household's consumption varies across housing tenure. Homeowners having joint ownership of property on average have the highest consumption propensity, while those having sole ownership of property consume the most in response to appreciation in housing wealth.     

Provision of Internet privacy and market conditions: An empirical analysis

Importing insights from an industrial organization model, this study analyzes the relationship between the provision of Internet privacy protection and market conditions. A composite sample of heavily trafficked and randomly selected sites was examined as to their level of privacy protection, as indicated by interface features of Notice and Choice. The analyses showed the limited supply of such functionalities by most websites, far short of the industry's standard of conduct. Logistic regressions demonstrated that domain and website attributes, indicative of market conditions, had minimal impact on the likelihood of high privacy provision. The findings shed critical lights on the market-based FTC Internet privacy principle that has been placed since 1998 and indicate the need for a new set of interface-focused policy proposals in domain-context specific regulations.     

Income distribution and the diffusion of networks: An empirical study of Brazilian telecommunications

Telecommunications is often considered to be an important contributor to economic growth, and most countries have therefore adopted several initiatives to improve coverage of fixed as well as mobile telephones. This paper focuses on the role of income distribution on the diffusion of fixed telecommunications in Brazil. The focus is on how the distribution of income may affect affordability and thereby the market size. The result is that an uneven income distribution may result in higher coverage for the poorest municipalities in the study since the uneven distribution allows for at least some consumers to reach the critical level of income. For municipalities above a certain average income level, the effect is reversed and coverage will be adversely affected by high inequality. The findings are robust to different measures of inequality.     

The governance of external research: empirical test of some transaction-cost related factors

In this article, we analyse the impact of some transaction-cost related factors on the governance of external research. We study how transaction costs vary according to specific attributes of the R&D project, such as the stage in the R&D process, the number of partners implied, the number of technological fields covered, the geographical scope and the duration of the project. According to transaction cost theory, we hypothesize that the higher the transaction costs relative to market governance, the more it is likely that the governance structure will move towards hierarchy.     

The value of formal planning for strategic decisions: Review of empirical research

A review of research from organizational behaviour supported the guidelines by corporate planners: that is, use an explicit approach for setting objectives, generating strategies, evaluating strategies, monitoring results, and obtaining commitment. To determine whether these findings could be applied to strategic decision making in organizations, a review was made of all published field research on the evaluation of formal planning. Formal planning was superior in 10 of the 15 comparisons drawn from 12 studies, while informal planning was superior in only two comparisons. Although this research did not provide sufficient information on the use of various aspects of the planning process, mild support was provided for having participation by stakeholders. Formal planning tended to be more useful where large changes were involved, but, beyond that, little information was available to suggest when formal planning is most valuable. Future research should assess the formal planning process, the situation in which it is used, and its effects on the total system.     

The Lead User method: an outline of empirical findings and issues for future research

In order to reduce the risks of failure usually associated with NPD, leading companies such as 3M, HILTI, or Johnson&Johnson are increasingly working with so-called Lead Users. Their identification and involvement is supported by the Lead User method – a multi stage approach aiming to generate innovative new product concepts and to enhance the effectiveness of cross-functional innovation teams. While the Lead User method is frequently cited in the literature, yet, there are only limited attempts to comprehensively discuss how this approach is embedded in theories and empirical findings of innovation and marketing research. Therefore the Lead User method is in the focus of the present paper, both with respect to its theoretical foundation and its implementation into the innovation management system. First, empirical research on user innovations is reviewed to clarify the theoretical foundation of the Lead User method. Second the attention is drawn to the Lead User practice by discussing the various process steps of this specific approach on the basis of two applications of the method. Based on this discussion, we outline open questions related with the practical implementation of the Lead User method in order to start an agenda for future research.     

The influence of digital divide frames on legislative passage and partisan sponsorship: A content analysis of digital equity legislation in the U.S. from 1990 to 2020

Government funding is essential for digital equity. Scholarship on policies to improve internet access often examines the funding mechanisms behind subsidies, or the quality and reach of services provided. However, a better understanding of the issues and constituencies to receive government support to date may help digital equity activists more strategically lobby for new digital divide policies in the future. To do this, we take a macro-level approach to Van Dijk's resources and appropriation theory and examine how the framing of all digital divide–related U.S. Congressional legislation introduced between 1990 and 2020 may be associated with a bill's passage or the political party of its sponsor. Content analysis revealed that bills highlighting privacy literacy programs, educational outcomes, and corporate transparency were more likely to be passed into legislation. Bills sponsored by Republicans were 422% more likely of being passed into legislation. Certain frames were also associated with partisan sponsorship: Republican-sponsored bills were more often framed around deregulation, privacy programs, corporate transparency, and rural access, whereas Democrat-sponsored bills were more often framed around digital skills such as digital literacy and educational outcomes. Findings serve as a historical record of digital equity priorities in the U.S. and highlight possible strategies for future policy design.     

Conceptualizing digital and physical connectivity: The position of European cities in Internet backbone and air traffic flows

‘Digital’ telecommunication flows and ‘physical’ corporeal flows provide researchers with comprehensive indicators of the economic interactions between cities. However, previous research drawing on telecommunication-based measures of inter-urban connectivity has been hampered by inadequate conceptualizations and data. This paper draws on this observation to devise a new approach for measuring inter-urban connectivity based on a city’s insertion in Internet backbone networks. The straightforward example of air transport flows is thereby used to outline this approach. To investigate telecommunication and air passenger flows, use is made of European statistics on Internet eXchange Points and the MIDT airline database respectively. The approach is illustrated through a systematic comparison of the position of European cities in both types of networks. It is found that European cities assume largely similar hierarchical levels in terms of digital and physical information flows, albeit that the digital connectivity of centrally located European cities is often somewhat higher than that of peripheral cities with a similar levels of physical connectivity.     

A theoretical and empirical study on China's transition to digital TV

This paper explores the impact of policies made by the State Administration of Radio, Film, and TV on China's transition to digital TV. The method of stakeholder analysis is used to present a theoretical study on the digital transition, with a quantitative model analyzing the welfare change of three segments of consumers. A simultaneous-equation model is used to study the characteristics of the demand and supply of digital TV in China. It is argued that the policy of uniform transition that ignores coordination among stakeholders does harm to consumers’ benefits, and the healthy and sustainable development of China's cable digital TV industry. In an introductory phase of digital TV, educating consumers with convenient and pleasing experience is essential, and restructuring cable operators in a market-oriented way is also critical for developing countries like China.