If all their products seem the same,all the parts within a product seem the same too: How brand homogeneity polarizes product experiences

Many different factors affect brand homogeneity, including the different products associated with a brand, how they are made, and how they are branded. How does the perceived homogeneity of a brand’s offered products, in turn, affect consumers’ experiences with those products? Nine experiments reveal that consumers have more polarized judgments of product experiences when the sampled products are perceived to belong to more homogeneous brands. When a consumption experience is positive, the consumer has an even more positive experience when they think the sampled product came from a homogeneous brand; however, when a consumption experience is negative, the consumer has an even more negative experience when they think the sampled product came from a homogeneous brand. This polarization occurs because the individual product inherits the brand-level quality of perceived internal consistency—when a brand seems homogeneous (i.e., consisting of homogeneous products), consumers also perceive any individual product from the brand as similarly consisting of homogeneous ingredients or parts. We suggest that brand homogeneity leads to selective processing of individual product experiences, which makes products seem more coherent, products rated faster, and ratings of different product ingredients or features more highly correlated. The perception that all of the parts within the individual sampled product are homogeneous in quality polarizes judgments of the product experience.     

Vulnerability of global brands to negative feedback effects

Going global is a successful strategy to leverage a brand's equity, in part, because global is synonymous of quality for consumers. This research examines the impact of competitor brand familiarity on the quality perceptions of global brands in Chile when the brand extends into new product categories. The results indicate that there is a negative impact on the quality perceptions of brand extensions when an extension competes with well-known and well-liked competitor brands. However, brand extension quality beliefs seem to produce negative feedback effects on parent brand quality beliefs only for narrowly extended parent brands but not for broadly extended ones.     

The influence of product knowledge and brand name on internal price standards and confidence

This study examines the influence of product knowledge (after adjusting for subjects' brand-specific price knowledge) and brand image (via the brand name) on estimates of internal price standards (i.e., lowest, average, and highest price estimates) for two categories of electronic products. The impact of differing levels of product knowledge on consumers' confidence in their internal price estimates is also studied. The hypothesized effect of brand image on price estimates was greater for novice consumers than for experts for one of the two product categories. In addition, confidence in price estimates was found to be higher for experts than for novices for both product categories. These findings suggest that the relationship between product knowledge and brand image should be considered when studying the impact of external reference price on internal price standards. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

How competitor brand names affect within-brand choices

This research shows that consumers’ intra-brand choices (e.g., Mercedes C330 vs. C340) can be affected by exposure to a competitor alphanumeric brand name that forms an incidental trend with the numbers in the focal brand names (e.g., BMW320i or BMW350i). We propose and test two mechanisms. First, when no attribute information is available, the competitor brand can make the numerical trends formed by brand names salient and meaningful, and increase the preference for higher brands (e.g., Mercedes C340). Second, when attribute values are negatively correlated with brands, exposure to the competitor brand name can trigger brand-attribute magnitude tradeoffs. In five experiments, we demonstrate that our predictions hold when there are no intrinsic brand-attribute associations, and even when the competitor brand is not available for choice. We identify competitive categorization as a boundary condition and demonstrate that the effect diminishes when consumers do not categorize the nonfocal option as a competitor.     

By-Brand or By-Category? The Effect of Display Format on Brand Extension Evaluation

Although consumers often encounter brand extensions for the first time during a store visit, most research on brand extensions does not take into consideration how product display in retail environments might affect evaluation of a brand extension. We explore the effect of two distinct display formats on brand extension evaluations: by-brand display, where a brand extension is presented in the context of other products made by the same parent brand (e.g., Nike razors displayed with Nike sneakers, Nike sportswear, etc.), and by-category display, where a brand extension is presented in the context of competing brands within the extension category (e.g., Nike razors displayed with Philips razors, Gillette razors, etc.). Three studies demonstrate that low fit extensions of high quality brands are evaluated more favorably when displayed by-category than by-brand, whereas high fit extensions of low quality brands are evaluated more favorably when displayed by-brand than by-category. In support of the proposed underlying mechanism, we show that display format influences consumers’ evaluations of brand extensions by changing the weight of importance given to parent brand quality and brand-extension fit information. Finally, we demonstrate that display format not only influences evaluation of the extension, but also has downstream consequences for the consumption experience with the extension.     

How Attitudes Toward Product Categories Drive Individual Brand Attitudes and Choice

Three experiments examine the role of attitudes toward the category to which a brand belongs in consumers’ attitudes toward individual brands. The core findings indicate that what consumers think generally about a category affects their evaluations of singular brands belonging to the category. Study 1 demonstrates that both consumers’ attitudes toward a category as well as their relative attitudes toward a brand versus intracategory competitors drive overall attitudes toward individual brands. Study 2 shows that manipulating attitudes toward a product category affects attitudes toward, and purchase intention of, individual brands belonging to that category. Study 3 demonstrates that more versus less favorably evaluated categories are more likely to exhibit brand positivity effects in judgments of singular brands. The results suggest the practical importance of measuring attitudes toward product categories, as well as the utility of marketing interventions aimed at the category level.     

Product-Country Images in the Context of NAFTA

Abstract

This article presents the results of a survey of 415 male consumers carried out in Mexico (240 respondents) and Canada (175 respondents). In this study, country-of-origin information was manipulated along three dimensions, namely country of design, country of assembly, and country of parts. Consumer judgments of the quality and purchase value of three product categories, i.e., automobiles, videocassette recorders, and shoes, were obtained in a multi-cue context. The results showed that Canadian and Mexican consumers put more emphasis on the country of origin of consumer products than on brand names. The product-country evaluations of Mexicans seemed to be affected by a strong home country bias. Implications for international marketers were derived from the results.     

Communicating brand gender through type fonts

The marketing literature suggests that positioning a brand in terms of brand gender (i.e., brand masculinity and brand femininity) generates favorable consumer responses, yet there is little research on how brand gender perceptions arise. This research examines whether type font can be employed to create brand gender perceptions in the context of unfamiliar brands. Building on the theoretical framework of personality inferences based on static cues, three studies involving a range of type fonts, brand names, and product categories demonstrate that type font influences consumers’ perceptions of brand gender. Type font effects emerged for brand names presented in isolation (Study 1), brand names presented on signage (Study 2a), and brand names on product labels (Studies 2b and 3). Importantly, type font effects on brand gender persisted in the presence of a competing brand gender cue (i.e., brand name with gender associations), and type font and brand name influenced brand gender perceptions independently. A fourth study demonstrates that type fonts representing the brands influence consumers’ likelihood to recommend the brand. The article concludes with a discussion of theoretical and brand management implications.     

Loyalty differences in the use of internal and external reference prices

Recent findings in reference price research suggest that consumer characteristics may affect whether they use an internal reference price (IPR) or an external reference price (ERP) in price judgments. In this paper, we investigate the role of one such characteristic, brand loyalty, in the use of either type of reference price. Specifically, we employ a latent class-type approach to divide consumers on the basis of their brand loyalty into an ERP and an IRP segment. Analysis of the margarine and liquid detergents categories shows that consumers who are highly loyal to a brand are likely to use external reference prices whereas less brand-loyal consumers rely on internal reference prices. We discuss the implications of this finding and suggest directions for future research.     

Beyond Seeing McDonald's Fiesta Menu: The Role of Accent in Brand Sincerity of Ethnic Products and Brands

Given the significant increase in the number of ethnic consumers, firms attempt to utilize various marketing communication strategies and tactics to promote their brands to these ethnically diverse groups. Similarly, many marketers are striving for brand crossovers by introducing ethnic offerings to new audiences. This research focuses on one such ethnic marketing communication strategy—the use of accented spokespersons. Building on a prosodic theory of accent, we propose that certain prosodic features (i.e., intonation) connote associations of sincerity and trustworthiness and thus affect brand sincerity perceptions. The current research also demonstrates that the effect of intonation depends on the degree of congruity between product ethnicity and a spokesperson's accent. Our results reveal that when these variables are congruent, consumers rely on the cues that are consistent with the advertising appeals. Thus, when a message uses a sincerity appeal, falling (versus rising) intonation leads to greater attributions of brand sincerity, whereas when a message uses a competence appeal, rising (versus falling) intonation triggers higher perceptions of brand sincerity. In the condition of incongruity, consumers aim to resolve the incongruity and rely on cues that connote the trustworthiness of a message (i.e., falling intonation). Theoretical and managerial implications conclude the article.     

Attention to social comparison information and brand avoidance behaviors

This research links brand avoidance behaviors to attention to social comparison information (ATSCI). We posit that high (vs low) ATSCI consumers will suffer from more social-evaluative uncertainty, i.e., more uncertainty regarding others’ reactions to their brand choices. To alleviate this problem, high ATSCI consumers will avoid distinctive or conspicuous brands and brand icons that might draw the attention of others, playing safe in their brand choices, rather than risking social disapproval. Two preliminary studies provide support for the theoretical assumptions, confirming that ATSCI is positively associated with brand consciousness, brand social-evaluative uncertainty, and brand avoidance motivated by social-evaluative concerns. Study 1 examines brand identification and shows that although high and low ATSCI consumers identify themselves with equally prestigious brands, the former avoid identifying with distinctive brands. Study 2 demonstrates that unlike their low ATSCI counterparts, high ATSCI consumers avoid conspicuous brand logos even in the case of highly prestigious brands.     

Assessing Brand Origin Recognition Accuracy and its Antecedents in a Developing Country

The aim of the present study was to examine two main questions regarding Indonesian consumers. First, what are the brand origin recognition accuracy (BORA) scores for both foreign brands and local brands among Indonesian consumers? Second, are socio-economic characteristics (education and income/spending), international experience (international travel and foreign language expertise), and demographic factors (age and gender) related to consumers’ brand origin recognition accuracy? The present research follows BORA procedures in the selection of 88 brands (44 foreign and 44 local brands). Questionnaires were distributed both offline and online, with 138 respondents participating offline and 163 people responding online. The BORA scores for both foreign and local brands among Indonesian consumers were relatively low (28.79% and 53.85%, respectively). BORA was also related to socio-economic characteristics, international experience, and age. In addition, men demonstrated higher BORA levels for foreign brands than women did. Most consumers were unable to differentiate brand origins because of the use of foreign languages for the brand names. Therefore, the foreign branding strategy of using languages of other countries (e.g., English, Chinese, Japanese, and so forth) that have positive images for particular product categories could be effectively employed in Indonesia.     

Connecting With Celebrities: How Consumers Appropriate Celebrity Meanings for a Sense of Belonging

We propose that consumers appropriate brand symbolism that comes from celebrity endorsements to construct and communicate their self-concepts. We also argue that consumers with high need to belong (NTB) look to celebrities to a greater extent than those who have lower needs to belong, because high-NTB consumers are more likely to look to celebrities for cues about which brands may aid these consumers' attempts to meet their affiliation needs. High-NTB consumers are also prone to develop one-sided (parasocial) relationships with celebrities, and these parasocial relationships mediate the celebrity endorsement effect on self–brand connections. Three studies support these proposed relationships. Furthermore, the third study also manipulates the degree to which the celebrity's image matches that of the brand being advertised, revealing that a symbolic match between the celebrity image and brand image is important for consumers who do not form parasocial relationships with celebrities (i.e., low-NTB consumers).     

When do unethical brand perceptions spill over to competitors?

We examine whether the unethical actions of marketplace brands (e.g., the Volkswagen emissions scandal) hurt the ethical perceptions of competing brands (e.g., Ford, BMW). Across two studies, we find evidence for this unethical spillover effect and show that it can negatively affect consumers’ liking and purchase intentions for a competing brand. The results show that the spillover effect (1) only occurs for similar competitors and (2) is moderated by construal level (CL). Specifically, the spillover effect is more likely to occur when consumers focus on the finer details of the unethical brand’s transgression (i.e., low CL) but not when they focus on the bigger picture of the transgression (i.e., high CL). Thus, while it is intuitively appealing to assume that brands may benefit from a competitor’s foible, this research indicates that competitors may be hurt by a similar brand’s wrongdoing.     

Do green packages lead to misperceptions? The influence of package colors on consumers’ perceptions of brands with environmental claims

Consumers need accurate information about brands’ environmental impacts to guide their purchase decisions. Researchers have studied consumers’ perceptions of green products and marketers’ environmental claims. Policy makers provide guidelines to minimize deceptiveness of environmental claims. Yet, little attention has been paid to what contextual cues can influence consumers’ judgments of environmental claims and green products. Drawing on conceptual fluency theory, the current research proposes that a color that matches the content of a message makes the information easier to process, thereby increasing the appeal of the message. The authors demonstrate that using the color green on a product’s package can enhance consumers’ perceptions of the brand’s environmental impact. Ironically, this positive effect of green can also lead to consumers’ misperceptions of the brand’s environmental impact if green is used for brands that are not environmentally superior. Implications and suggestions for policy makers, marketers, and consumers are provided.     

When goliaths win and davids lose: The moderating role of perceived risk in brand biography effects

Brand biographies trace a brand's evolution to position it as an underdog (i.e., passion and determination that lead to success despite limited resources) or a topdog (i.e., success based on abundance of resources) brand. This study examines how consumers’ risk perceptions associated with brand choice influence brand biography effects. It demonstrates that when perceived risk associated with brand choice is low, consumers process brand biographies narratively, experience greater narrative transportation into underdog (vs. topdog) brand biographies, and evaluate the underdog brand more favorably. When perceived risk associated with brand choice is high, consumers respond more positively to topdog (vs. underdog) brand biographies, due to topdog brands’ greater perceived ability to reduce risk. The topdog effect observed at higher levels of perceived risk reverses, however, when consumers have the opportunity to process the brand biography before receiving high risk information, as this allows for narrative transportation into the brand biography. This study contributes to research on moderators of brand biography effects and suggests that perceived risk should play a role in marketers’ decision to emphasize underdog or topdog characteristics in brand biographies.     

Following brands on Twitter: an extension of theory of planned behavior

Due to its immediacy and efficiency, Twitter has recently emerged as a form of marketing communication tool that offers unique advantages for two-way communication between marketers and consumers. This study examines brand-following behavior on Twitter using the Ajzen's model of theory of planned behavior (TPB). Results show that attitude toward brand following, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and brand attachment are positively associated with intention to follow brands on Twitter. Consumers’ intention to create (i.e., intention to tweet at brands) and disseminate (i.e., intention to retweet the links of brands) brand-related information, as well as purchase intention, are the outcomes of intention to follow brands on Twitter. Overall findings suggest that TPB model can be used to predict Twitter users’ brand-following behavior. More importantly, our finding that brand attachment drives consumer intention to follow brands on Twitter extends the TPB framework. This study provides both theoretical and managerial implications.     

Can good news be bad? The role of brand communication strategy and brand commitment in the announcement of product improvements

Although product improvements are usually good news, this research reveals that brands can be affected negatively depending on the level of brand commitment and on the type of communication strategy chosen by the brand. More specifically, this research examines how high-commitment consumers react to product improvements, and how these consumers respond to a communication strategy in which a brand admits that the new product version improves upon a previous inferior product (herein referred to as ‘honesty strategy’). Results of an online study reveal that product improvement is perceived more negatively by high- (compared to low-) commitment consumers, and that these consumers react more negatively and attribute manipulative intent when the brand uses an honesty strategy. This research shows that brands need to be cautious in communicating product improvements to consumers, particularly to its most committed ones. An admission that a product improvement significantly enhances the quality of a previous (inferior) product may backfire with committed consumers.     

The effect of distribution channel diversification of foreign luxury fashion brands on consumers’ brand value and loyalty in the Korean market

The purpose of this research is to examine South Korean consumers’ brand value and brand loyalty toward foreign luxury fashion brands and current distribution channels for those brands (i.e., Department stores/Specialty stores, Factory outlet, Internet retailing, TV home shopping). Furthermore, this research examines the impact of channel diversification on consumers’ brand value and brand loyalty toward foreign luxury fashion brands. This study employed a quantitative research method. Factor analysis, ANOVA, Duncan test, and multiple regression analysis were employed to test the hypotheses. When testing brand values for each channel diversification case, participants evaluated brand value differently depending on the type of distribution channel. Participants did not show significantly different brand loyalty depending on distribution diversification cases. When the influence of brand value on brand loyalty was tested, different brand values affected brand loyalty depending on the type of distribution channel. Also, this research could suggest possible distribution channel options for foreign luxury brands to be successful in the Korean market and values they need to put an importance depending on the retail types. In addition, foreign luxury brands could apply the results of this study to their own markets.     

Taming the Blame Game: Using Promotion Programs to Counter Product-Harm Crises

The present research examines how different kinds of promotion programs (i.e., price discount versus donation promotion) buffer brands from the ill effects of product-harm crises. Drawing on attribution theory, the authors investigate the differential effects of promotion programs on consumer responses following ambiguous product-harm crises. These effects are moderated by promotion depth (i.e., the monetary value of a promotion) and brand reputation. Results show that for low-depth promotions, donation is more effective than price discount when the product-harm crisis involves moderately reputable brands. Importantly, the authors identify blame attribution as the mediating mechanism accounting for the interaction effects. When the locus of causality is external to the focal brand, the interaction effects of promotion programs and brand reputation disappear.