The Coorong Wilderness Lodge: A case study of planning failures in Indigenous tourism

This paper presents a case study of the Coorong Wilderness Lodge (CWL) in order to highlight barriers to success that are in part derived from poor policy and planning supports for Indigenous Australian tourism operators. This analysis assists in filling a research gap on the catalysts to economic success and failure in Indigenous tourism through obtaining rich narratives from public sector facilitators and the Indigenous Australian tourism entrepreneur. Using social construction theory, this paper narrates the story of difficulties in developing the infrastructure between 1995 and 2008. This story highlights diverging views of how such enterprises should be supported which is in part explained by cultural differences, diverging expectations and poor communications across such divides. With the founder of the CWL George Trevorrow as a co-researcher in the project, the paper provides an emic perspective that offers fresh insights into this topic.     

Assessing ecotourism in an Indigenous community: using,testing and proving the wheel of empowerment framework as a measurement tool

Many of the issues confronting Indigenous peoples result from disempowered communities. Conversely, where communities are empowered, usually as a consequence of landownership, they are able to actively participate in, and benefit from, economic activities such as tourism. In this study, a framework titled the wheel of empowerment framework is used to demonstrate how the level of empowerment/disempowerment in five dimensions can be measured. The dimensions tested are economic, psychological, social, political and environmental. Indicators to measure the level of empowerment for each dimension were developed in a three-stage research process commencing with semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, followed by focus groups with community members from Coba, a Mayan village located near Cancun in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. Appropriate indicators were identified and used to assess community levels of empowerment. Results show that the ability of communities to develop sustainable ecotourism businesses requires support from external stakeholders including governments and the private sector as well as internal stakeholders including the local community and importantly from community leaders. The results also show that empowered communities are able to derive considerable social and economic benefits from ecotourism business ventures and make a positive contribution to the ongoing maintenance of sustainability of their local environment.     

Ecotourism as a conservation tool and its adoption by private protected areas in Brazil

Ecotourism in private reserves combines the establishment of protected areas with an incentive mechanism to conserve biodiversity. Brazil's private reserve system is well-established but little is known about its links to tourism. This study puts the global private protected area into context and quantifies the extent to which ecotourism has been adopted as a sustainable land-use practice on private reserves in Brazil. Our findings demonstrate that small reserves do contribute to conservation and are used for ecotourism. The belief that large reserves are necessary for ecotourism and conservation is challenged. Only 4% (n = 45) of the 1182 reserves are engaged in ecotourism, mainly those within the Atlantic Forest biome and these are generally small in size (<50 ha). Reserves provide modest to basic accommodation as well as education and economic opportunities that include adjacent communities. Hiking and bird watching are the most popular activities but many reserves are threatened by poaching and invasive species. The low adoption of ecotourism appears due to a combination of factors, including lack of landowner interest, constraints imposed by regulations, logistics and anthropogenic threats. Nonetheless, there is potential to expand ecotourism within private reserves as 143 further private reserves are located near those already engaged in ecotourism.     

A Protected Areas Ecotourism Competitive Cluster Approach to Catalyse Biodiversity Conservation and Economic Growth in Bulgaria

This paper focuses on how small ecotourism and related supply chain businesses in gateway communities can be linked to protected areas by organising them into competitive clusters focused on their comparative advantages and uniqueness. It examines pilot project work in Bulgaria in small communities near the Rila and Central Balkan National Park. It shows how Bulgaria might develop its ecotourism potential by replicating this approach. The Bulgarian experience holds potential for replication in other protected areas and gateway communities using collaborative tools based upon lessons learned from the model sites and from ecotourism cases around the world, including: (1) developing an inclusive stakeholder group; (2) fostering education within gateway communities near protected areas; (3) strengthening the legal and regulatory framework; (4) expanding small and medium size enterprises (SMEs) and entrepreneurship opportunities; (5) expanding destination management capacity at the community level; (6) linking protected area sites to less visited areas; (7) implementing environmental management and certification programmes; (8) expanding financing for protected areas; (9) using the Internet for linking and branding the network; and (10) developing indicator or monitoring systems.     

The mining sector and indigenous tourism development in Weipa,Queensland

A relatively high proportion of Indigenous Australians live in remote areas where a number of mines are located. Indigenous Australians are more likely than their non-Indigenous counterparts to be unemployed and to be living below the poverty line and in order to overcome this disadvantage it is important for Indigenous people to gain meaningful employment. In these remote areas, in addition to mining, tourism is seen as potentially providing substantial opportunities for Indigenous employment. However many of these Indigenous tourism enterprises will need on-going support to become sustainable. Mining companies have significant resources and infrastructure that could be used to help develop Indigenous tourism and a number of companies, as part of their corporate social responsibility agenda, have directly facilitated the development of Indigenous tourism ventures. This study examined Indigenous involvement in tourism in the Weipa region of north-west Queensland and the role of the then Comalco bauxite mining operation, now called Rio Tinto Aluminium, in assisting this development. The study revealed substantial enthusiasm about market opportunities for Indigenous tourism and potential support from the Comalco mine. However the mine did not see itself as being directly involved but saw itself as a facilitator working with some regional Indigenous organisations. However given the constraints these other organisations face, this approach by Comalco is likely to limit the effectiveness of the mine's efforts.     

Indigenous legacy for building resilience: A case study of Taiwanese mountain river ecotourism

Tourist destinations as social-ecological systems face growing challenges to build resilience to cope with various disruptions. This research explores how disadvantaged Indigenous communities in Taiwan, especially those located in typhoon-sensitive and geologically fragile areas, developed resilience as tourist destinations. It applies empirical data from Indigenous River Closure, a movement which aims to develop river ecotourism and build resilience in the face of growing uncertainty. The research applies mixed methods, including in-depth interview, news-archive review, and participatory observation, with an intention for primary data and secondary data to complement one another.Based on the intertwined concepts of resilience, adaptability, transformability, and self-reorganization, the results show that River Closure initiated from within those communities (endogenous) seems to build greater resilience in ecotourism. At the same time, cases instigated by outsiders (exogenous) are not without potential to be successful, but there is a need to cautiously build consensus and increase capacity in the collaborative process with outside resources.The success of river ecotourism in a sensitive area depends on the level of social capital. It plays a key role in mobilizing community resources to adapt to uncertainty, reorganizing relations between the community and tourism development, and transforming River Closure from a community-based response to exploitation, to a robust Indigenous movement. However, while inherent social capital is proved to be a strong essence for community actions, it is becoming rare in modern society. Thus bolstering social capital is core to the exogenous approach for building resilience in the tourism sector.     

Synergies between Australian indigenous tourism and ecotourism: possibilities and problems for future development

This paper examines and finds synergies between indigenous tourism and ecotourism in Australia. Both were recognised in the 2003 Tourism White Paper as drawcards for international tourists; Tourism Australia markets both as two of the country's seven key visitor experiences. Despite this, and the proven need to assist indigenous peoples’ socio-economic position, the indigenous tourism sector remains relatively immature. The paper, using a mixed-methods approach, including in-depth discussions with 26 indigenous tourism businesses, examines this problem and suggests ways forward. The results indicate that between 50% and 70% of indigenous tourism businesses are located in remote or very remote areas and utilise the environment to a substantial degree. Communities, couples and families dominate ownership patterns. Only 25% operate on a full-time basis. However, indigenous operators do not necessarily see themselves as being “ecotourism” businesses, despite their concern for and care of country. Very few are accredited: the ecotourism accreditation process is complex and expensive with guidelines based upon Westernised views of nature. Major changes in accreditation practice are suggested along with education and support for indigenous tourism businesses to ensure a stronger relationship between indigenous tourism and ecotourism and to improve Aboriginals’ socio-economic status.     

Cultural heritage and Indigenous tourism

ABSTRACT

Tourism is acknowledged as a vehicle that can help sustain both tangible and intangible elements of Indigenous cultural heritage, including languages, stories, song, art, dance, hunting methods, rituals and customs. Often, cultural heritage products developed for tourism promise to provide many socio-economic opportunities for the communities involved, however, tourism can also present a challenge as the self-management of Indigenous cultural product and cultural identity can be problematic. Given the pivotal role culture plays in the sustainability of Indigenous tourism products, it is time for a twenty-first century examination of the nexus between cultural heritage and Indigenous tourism. This paper reflects upon tourism and contemporary Indigenous cultural heritage, both tangible and intangible. Through a review of the current literature on Indigenous tourism and cultural heritage, the authors identify key areas for future research and aim to stimulate further discussion around the ways Indigenous tourism may be developed to sustain Indigenous cultural heritage.     

Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest of Palenque: empowerment issues in sustainable development

Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest has received little research attention. This study examines issues related to the level of empowerment in a Mayan village located near the Palenque World Heritage Site in southern Mexico. An adapted empowerment framework was used to assess community empowerment and its relationship with stakeholders’ participation by collecting the views of internal and external stakeholders in indigenous ecotourism. Using a checklist of 60 empowerment indicators, the study developed a wheel of empowerment tool that graphically illustrates and compares levels of empowerment/disempowerment in local communities. Results indicate that although there is a will from many villagers to participate in tourism, lack of knowledge, limited economic resources and the poor negotiation skills of local leaders have disempowered the community from undertaking ecotourism ventures. Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have not supported the community until recently, the private sector has played little part, and while the Mexican government is shaping the course of indigenous ecotourism with support programmes, state agencies have resisted local ecotourism development. Overall, the community fell below the midpoint on the Wheel of Empowerment Scale. These findings show a need for more effective empowerment strategies to maximise community involvement in managing cultural and natural resources for tourism development.     

Objective Indicators of the Impact of Rural Tourism Development in the State of Florida

Over the past decade, many rural communities have been encouraged to incorporate tourism in their economic development strategies. Tourism is increasingly seen as a potential basic industry providing employment opportunities, income and economic diversity. However, concerns over the potential impacts have created a demand for comprehensive planning and research on the effects of tourism development on residents' quality of life. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate an objective means of determining the impact tourism development has on rural residents' quality of life. Using census data from rural counties in a US state, the findings suggest that tourism development is a viable means of improving the quality of life in rural communities. However, as in the case of any economic development alternatives, there are a number of underlying consequences that should be anticipated and planned for in pursuing a tourism development strategy that is appropriate and sustainable.     

Alternative tourism in Montserrat

Small island states or dependencies have increasingly turned to international mass tourism as a strategy for overcoming their underdeveloped status. However, mounting criticism of this sector has increased the interest in alternative tourism. The Caribbean island of Montserrat is well positioned to implement an ecotourism strategy based on the island's scenic beauty, biodiversity and historical/cultural attributes. This would augment an already unconventional tourism product emphasizing low-density residential tourism. The fact that few tangible initiatives have so far been taken in the direction of ecotourism is not problematic, since careful planning is advisable given the risks inherent in any form of tourism, and given existing and potential problems which could threaten its viability. A Montserrat Heritage Trail network is proposed as the centrepiece of this ecotourism product, while various marketing and institutional initiatives are recommended.     

Ecotourism in rural developing communities

This paper considers the ad hoc development of ecotourism at Ostional, Costa Rica, and the potential benefits for the local community in the absence of government planning or intervention. In 1995, only four percent of Ostional households identified tourism as a source of income; however, this was substantial in comparison to that derived from other economic activities. While most Ostional residents had positive attitudes toward tourism, they had limited awareness of employment or investment opportunities. Lack of awareness, along with increased activity by outside investors, suggests that, in the absence of formalized planning or intervention, the possibilities for the community at Ostional to further benefit from tourism development will be limited.     

Resident Attitudes Towards Mountain Second-Home Tourism Development in Norway: The Effects of Environmental Attitudes

Rural tourism, especially through second-home development is increasing rapidly in much of Europe, the USA and Canada offering new economic opportunities for local communities, but also challenges related to environmental impacts and differing perceptions within communities about appropriate development paths. This study examines associations between the environmental attitudes of residents and attitudes towards second-home development in two regions in Southern Norway, with community attachment and economic dependency as additional predictors. Ecocentrism was found to have a strong negative effect on attitudes towards tourism development, while, in contrast to previous findings, community attachment did not have significant effects. Economic dependency is significantly related to attitudes towards development; both ecocentrism and economic dependency are mediated by other variables, such as expected impacts and benefits. The findings are important in planning to reduce potential conflicts.     

Indigenous tourism and the sustainable development goals

This research aims to identify opportunities for the tourism industry to effectively address the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in ways that respect Indigenous priorities and support development aspirations of Indigenous peoples. We do so via case studies of Indigenous tourism among small-medium sized enterprises in Fiji, Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand. The research finds that the Indigenous tourism enterprises operated in the spirit of many of the SDGs, even when they had low awareness of these goals. It also finds that Indigenous values and lifeways – such as appreciation of the intrinsic connection between nature and culture - correspond with the SDG agenda, and could be used to further advance this agenda in ways that benefit Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples.     

The Effects of Ecotourism in Developing Nations: An Analysis of Case Studies

One class of tourism that attempts to minimise the negative effects of traditional tourism is ecotourism. Much of the current ecotourism planning is only guesswork because few studies on the various impacts of ecotourism have been undertaken. This review collected data from ecotourism articles and scored each on seven separate ecotourism effect criteria to be used for analysis. Of the factors analysed, geographic location had a significant effect on tourism impacts while date and ownership of the conservation area did not. Ecotourism projects would benefit by using these criteria to quantitatively measure the state of their area. The results of this review illustrate that while ecotourism planning is in its infancy, ecotourism projects have the potential to be tools for sustainable development.     

Stakeholder collaboration as a major factor for sustainable ecotourism development in developing countries

Ecotourism has been widely championed by academics and practitioners as a potential contributor of conservation and development. However, others have questioned whether sustainability goals can be achieved through this form of tourism. Of the various factors reported in the literature as hindering the success of ecotourism, the lack of effective stakeholder collaboration features prominently. This study draws upon stakeholder and collaboration theories and on triple-bottom-line principles, to investigate the contributions of stakeholder collaborations to sustainable ecotourism. The researchers adopted an exploratory research design and conducted stakeholder in-depth interviews and focus group discussions between 2016 and 2018. The findings revealed poor interactions and collaborations amongst ecotourism stakeholders. Consequently, ecotourism in Southern Ethiopia accelerates the degradation of natural resources, neglecting communities while benefiting other ecotourism stakeholders. Therefore, in poorly resourced and remote destinations, failure to empower and participate communities undermines ecotourism and jeopardizes the long-term survival of ecosystems and communities themselves.     

Collective tourism social entrepreneurship: A means for community mobilization and social transformation

Communities depicted by lack of opportunities for development often look to tourism initiatives as a means to combine economic growth and community building. Such activity highlights a nexus between tourism, social entrepreneurship and community development. This nexus has been investigated somewhat in tourism literature, but lacks empirical backing, as well as theoretical refinement. We argue that a collective perspective on social entrepreneurship in the tourism context is needed, and introduce a concept and framework for ‘Collective Tourism Social Entrepreneurship’. We investigate how these principles are utilized by local communities to combat depopulation and deterioration in two Danish destinations, and find that the proposed process can create (social) value even if the expected result is never reached.     

Who wins and who loses? Unpacking the “local people” concept in ecotourism: a longitudinal study of community equity in Ankarana,Madagascar

Tourism in the Ankarana protected area, Madagascar, has increased since the early 1990s, linked to growing national and donor interest in conservation and ecotourism. Using a qualitative and longitudinal approach, this analysis focuses on the social impacts of tourist intensification, comparing and contrasting communities on either side of the protected area. As tourist numbers have increased, infrastructure to accommodate them has developed and tour guiding has professionalized. In this process, the locus of tourism shifted from the loosely organized, “grassroots” tourism of the western side of Ankarana to the organized, externally financed, easy-access tourism of the eastern side, with both environmental and social consequences. The paper argues that a concentration and professionalization of ecotourism services within a region can marginalize neighboring human communities even though not necessarily leading to increased overall environmental degradation. It contributes to tourism studies by engaging a political ecology approach to unpack the concept of “local people” through a multi-community study of the ripple effects of ecotourism within its immediately surrounding areas. This study of community equity acknowledges the need for balanced evaluations of tourism's effects. It also recognizes the value of nuanced empirical studies for planning to meet goals of location-specific environmental and socioeconomic sustainability.     

A structural model of residents’ intention to participate in ecotourism: The case of a wetland community

Ecotourism supports environmental conservation as well as generating economic opportunities. It additionally strongly emphasizes benefits to the local community and suggests that the involvement of the residents is important for the effective management of tourism. Accordingly, this study explores factors contributing to residents’ participation intention in ecotourism management and proposes a structural relationship between their participation intention, environmental knowledge, attitudes towards ecotourism and the appeal of tourist landscapes. Analysis indicates residents’ environmental knowledge positively affects attitudes towards ecotourism, which in turn directly and indirectly determine the intention to participate in ecotourism through their individual landscape affinity. Thus, residents’ involvement in ecotourism may be stimulated through a) appropriate management strategies aimed at increasing their environmental knowledge, b) encouraging positive ecotourism attitudes, and c) environmental planning that promotes residents’ affinity for local attractions.     

On the rim of inspiration: performance of AWF tourism enterprises in Botswana and Rwanda

Community-based natural resource management approaches including joint venture partnerships provide opportunities to achieve biodiversity conservation and associated tourism development. The African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) conservation enterprise model aims to improve the quality of life of communities and promote positive local attitudes towards conservation, and has been used to establish conservation lodges. To date, there has been no assessment of the performance of the conservation lodges in relation to this aim. This study used two case study AWF-initiated conservation lodges in Rwanda and Botswana to assess the performance of these conservation enterprises. The study adopted one-on-one structured questionnaire interviews with lodge staff and community residents. Analysis of economic and social performance and attitudes to conservation indicates that rural communities within the vicinity of the conservation lodges are generally benefitting from the existence of the lodges and associated tourism activity although to varying degrees, as well as promoting positive conservation attitudes among the community.