Why negative brand extension evaluations do not always negatively affect the brand: The role of central and peripheral brand associations

This research introduces the concept of brand association centrality and distinguishes central brand associations (CBAs) and peripheral brand associations (PBAs). Study 1 shows that the consistency with CBAs and PBAs influences perceived brand extension fit. However, the brand extension consistency with CBAs positively affects consumer–brand extension evaluations, while the brand extension consistency with PBAs does not have a significant effect. Study 2 demonstrates the mediating role of perceived fit between brand extension consistency with CBAs and brand extension evaluations. The study shows that the more inconsistent the product extension is with CBAs, the more the brand's image is altered and the faster brand evaluations deteriorate. In contrast, the brand extension inconsistency with PBAs does not affect brand evaluations.     

Consumer evaluations of brand extension: The roles of case‐based reminding on brand‐to‐brand similarity

Utilizing the case‐based reminding theory in analogical reasoning, this research proposes that the evaluation of a brand extension can be improved by reminding consumers of a similar brand in the extension category. This effect is derived from a brand‐to‐brand similarity, in addition to the product‐to‐product and brand‐to‐product similarity identified in prior literature. Experiment 1 explores the idea that the effect of similar case reminders is most pronounced in moderately similar extensions than in highly similar or highly dissimilar extensions due to schema congruity. Experiments 2 and 3 distinguish the levels of similarity (i.e., product‐to‐product, brand‐to‐product, and brand‐to‐brand similarity) as a source of consumers' evaluations on a brand extension and further eliminate an alternative explanation of instantaneous learning in the advertisement setup of Experiment 1. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The effects of processing mode and brand scandals on copycat product evaluations

Conventional wisdom suggests a ‘copycat’ (look-alike) product’s success is due in part to the halo generated by its positive association with national leader brands (NLB). But, what if the NLB is the focus of negative publicity? In the current investigation, we seek to determine the extent to which NLB scandals (i.e. negative news stories) have an impact on consumers’ evaluations of copycat products. Further, we extend recent work on comparative evaluation strategies (consumer information processing modes) by demonstrating that a copycat product is evaluated more favorably when presented separate from (as opposed to adjacent to) the NLB product. However, negative perceptions of the NLB are shown to moderate these effects. Furthermore, a follow-up study supports the notion that visual similarity drives these effects.     

If we label it, will they care? The effect of GM-ingredient labelling on consumer responses

More than 60% of foods in North American supermarkets contain GM ingredients. While North American consumers seem less concerned about GM foods than Europeans and Japanese, many consumer activists argue that consumers have a “right to know” if what they eat has GM ingredients. Will informative labelling of GM foods lead to major shifts in buying patterns? An experimental study found minimal effects of GM labelling overall but significant differential reactions to GM-labelled products across consumers with differing levels of consumer activism, perceived benefits of genetic engineering, and interest in novel foods with consumer benefits.     

The effects of an advertising retrieval cue on young children's memory and brand evaluations

Young children's memory for television advertising is important in order for children to recognize brands in stores and/or to recall the brand name in making a purchase request. Two experiments showed that the use of visual advertising retrieval cue (a green frog as the brand character) improved memory performance and brand evaluations. Study 1 (n = 40) showed promise in the cue's assistance in children's recalling the brand name (cued recall) from the ad memory trace. Study 2 (n = 40) contained multiple exposures to the ad, which resulted in greater free recall and in support for the cue's assistance in better access of the brand name from the ad memory trace (cued recall). Affected ad memory resulted in more favorable brand evaluations and intent to request the brand's purchase. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

On being happy and possessive: The interactive effects of mood and personality on consumer judgments

Evaluations of consumer items may often be based on affective reactions, and many marketing strategies rely on affective manipulations to influence a desire of ownership. Surprisingly, there has been relatively little empirical work investigating the influence of short‐term mood states on how people evaluate their material possessions. In particular, the role of individual differences in mediating these effects received little attention. In these two experiments, participants who scored high or low on the Openness to Feelings scale were induced to feel good or bad and were then asked to estimate the subjective and objective value of a variety of consumer items they already owned or wanted to own. Results showed a mood‐congruent pattern. People who were feeling good valued both actual and potential possessions more highly than did people in a negative mood. However, individual differences significantly influenced these effects. People who scored high on the Openness to Feelings scale were most influenced by their moods. In contrast, people who scored low on this measure showed the reverse pattern. The findings are discussed in terms of the psychological mechanisms responsible for producing affect infusion into thinking and judgments, and the critical role of personality variables in mediating these effects is considered. The implications of the findings for contemporary affect‐cognition theories, and for understanding of the variables influencing consumer judgments are discussed. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

It is not about what you read,but how you read it: the effects of sequencing rational and emotional messages on corporate and product brand attitudes

The study aims to examine the effects of message sequencing on attitudinal responses, namely on the effects of rational to emotional and emotional to rational message sequences on consumer attitudes toward the corporate and product brand. A between-subjects experiment was conducted using a stratified random sample. Participants were exposed to advertisements that communicate marketing messages either in a rational to emotional sequence or in an emotional to rational sequence for a product advertised by an organization. All attitudinal responses to the corporate and product brand were collected through a questionnaire that was given at the end of the experiment. The findings suggest advertisements that communicate marketing messages in an emotional to rational sequence produced more favorable attitudes toward the product brand among consumers as compared to advertisements that communicate in a rational to emotional sequence. However, no significant differences were found on consumer attitudes toward the corporate brand. These results remain true regardless of gender.     

The interactive effects of product and brand portfolio strategies on brand performance: Longitudinal evidence from the U.S. automotive industry

Product and brand portfolio extensions are effective marketing strategies to meet customer needs and to create a competitive advantage in the marketplace. Nevertheless, product and brand portfolios can get out of control easily leading to a loss of market focus and market share. This study examines how product portfolio and branding decisions affect brand performance (unit sales and market share). Prior research in marketing has investigated the effects of product portfolio and branding strategies on firm performance in isolation. However, these decisions are rarely isolated events. Usually, for multi-product and multi-brand companies, product portfolio decisions are determined in conjunction with branding decisions. Using a dynamic panel generalized method of moments estimation on a comprehensive dataset from the U.S. automotive industry between 2007 and 2013, this study examines the extent to which product and brand portfolio characteristics interact to affect brand performance. Findings reveal that while brand portfolio scope augments the positive effects of portfolio depth and innovativeness on brand performance, it attenuates the positive effects of product portfolio breadth on brand performance. Also, brand positioning in auto industry enhances brand performance only when considered jointly with product portfolio breadth, depth, and innovativeness. Finally, the present study discovers critical managerial trade-offs between product and brand portfolio decisions, as product and brand portfolio decisions are intertwined and a careful examination of the existing product and brand portfolio characteristics seem to be warranted to maximize brand performance.     

Brand crises: The roles of brand familiarity and crisis relevance in determining the impact on brand evaluations

Brand crises, defined as well-publicized claims of unsubstantiated or false brand propositions can do severe damage to brands. Yet, the damaging effects of brand crises may not always be uniform. In other words, the effects of crises may be subject to moderators such as the relevance of the crisis to the brand and brand familiarity. We propose a framework that helps us understand the effects of brand crises on consumers' brand evaluations. We test the hypotheses that crisis relevance interacts with familiarity in its effect on brand evaluations, and that this effect is mediated by perceptions of the seriousness of the crisis. Results from two experiments support these predictions.     

Consumers' mood states: The mitigating influence of personal relevance on product evaluations

This article reports the results of two studies where subjects' mood states (good, bad) were manipulated. In keeping with previous findings, subjects' evaluations were biased by their mood state. As predicted, however, this bias was only discernible when the product evaluation was perceived to be relatively unimportant. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

A closer look at similarity: The effects of perceived similarity and conjunctive cues on brand extension evaluation

Similarity between a core product and an extension product is regarded as a key success factor for brand extensions. However, a review of the literature reveals that the conditions under which high similarity is beneficial are unclear. In the first experiment, the authors test three models (the brand-attitude-transfer model, the incongruity-induced-affect model, and the “you cannot be good or bad at everything” principle) to predict the role of similarity. They find support only for the brand-attitude-transfer model. This suggests that high similarity is only beneficial when consumers evaluate brands favorably. Furthermore, little is known about how additional information provided by the supplier affects consumers' similarity perceptions without changing the extension product itself more than on a superficial level and without emphasizing common benefits. The authors compare the conditions of high and low core product/extension category similarity. Under the former condition, common peripheral advertising cues, similarity primes, portrayals of core products, and common peripheral design cues increase evaluations of extension products when the brand is evaluated favorably. Under the latter condition, these cues differ with respect to their effect.     

The differential effects of time and usage on the brand premiums of automobiles

We investigate how the status and functional benefits of cars’ brands lose value over time. Theoretically, we show that brands with a higher status, or that appeal to status-conscious consumers, exhibit steeper price decline over time. Empirically, we take advantage of the phenomenon of twin cars – pairs of car models that are nearly identical from a structural and mechanical standpoint, but that are sold under differing brand names – to disentangle the effects of physical wear and tear, which should impact both the premium brand and the corresponding standard brand similarly; and time-related price decline, which should affect each brand differently. The main result is that a premium car’s price declines much faster than that of the corresponding standard car (controlling for physical condition, mileage, and initial price). This result suggests that status declines faster than do functional attributes, and status seekers tend to replace their cars earlier.     

Cultural influences on brand extension judgments: Opposing effects of thinking style and regulatory focus

Asians are more likely than Westerners to have both a relational (vs. analytic) thinking style and a prevention (vs. promotion) focus. These two chronic dispositions can have opposite effects on their evaluations of brand extensions, the relative magnitude of which depends on whether the extensions are construed at a concrete or abstract level. Results of three experiments demonstrate that when an extension is psychologically close and construed at a concrete level, Asians' disposition to engage in relational thinking leads them to perceive the extension to be relatively more similar to the parent, leading them to evaluate the extension more favorably than do Westerners. On the other hand, when the extension is psychologically distant and construed at an abstract level and thus Asians are unlikely to engage in relational processing, their prevention focus leads them to perceive the extension to be riskier and evaluate it less favorably than do Westerners.     

品牌来源国和产品制造国对消费者产品质量评价和购买意愿的影响

This research explores the different effects of brand origin country and made-in country on consumers’ product evaluations and purchase intention. It is found that made-in cues have significant impacts on quality evaluation while brand origin cues influence purchase intention more prominently. Product quality is perceived lower when a brand from developed country is manufactured in developing countries, however, this may not affect consumers’ purchase intentions.      

Sophisticated but confused: The impact of brand extension and motivation on source confusion

Legal and consumer psychology scholars have focused recent attention on source confusion, which is the likelihood that consumers will be confused regarding the company that is a product's source or sponsor. The authors evaluate two potential antecedents of source confusion: (1) consumer motivation and (2) a brand extension that has been undertaken by a competitor. There have been disagreements in the courts, the scholarly legal literature, and the consumer psychology literature concerning the nature and extent of the impact of these two variables on the likelihood of consumer confusion. Based on schema theory, the authors hypothesize that consumer motivation and brand extension will influence the likelihood of source confusion. An interaction between the two variables is proposed, with consumer motivation having an effect that is opposite to the effect typically identified in the literature and case law. The results of a controlled laboratory experiment support the theoretical predictions. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The shape of premiumness: Logo Shape's effects on perceived brand premiumness and brand preference

Logos are the brands’ visual identity, which can influence brand positioning and contribute to brand success. However, little is known about the effect of logo shape on brand premiumness perception. Thus, we conducted four studies, including one archival dataset analysis, to examine this issue. Results revealed that consumers perceive angular-logo brands as more premium than circular-logo brands. Such logo shape effect is driven by perceived psychological distance between the brand and consumers. We further identified the downstream consequences of perceived brand premiumness. To express status, consumers are more likely to choose angular-logo brands, which are perceived as more premium. However, consumers unmotivated by status-expressing goals will be unaffected by such perceptions. These findings have theoretical implications regarding brand logo and positioning, and practical implications for logo design.     

The effects of new firm formation on regional development over time: The case of Great Britain

This paper re-examines the link between new firm formation and subsequent employment growth. It investigates whether it is possible to have the wrong type of entrepreneurship—defined as new firm formation which leads to zero or even negative subsequent employment growth. It uses a very similar approach to that of Fritsch and Mueller (Regional Studies, 38(8), 961–976, 2004), confirming their findings that the employment impact of new firm formation is in three discrete phases. Then, using data for Great Britain, the paper shows the employment impact of new firm formation is significantly positive in the high-enterprise counties of Great Britain. However, for the low-enterprise counties, it shows that new firm formation has a negative effect on employment. Of the 15 low-enterprise regions, eight are Scottish (of nine Scottish regions in our data base) and three are North East Counties (of four). Our findings imply that having the “wrong type of entrepreneurship” is indeed possible.

Sponsorship effects on brand image: The role of exposure and activity involvement

Sponsorships capture a significant proportion of marketing budgets. In firm evaluations of the effectiveness of sponsorship engagements, image improvements represent the most important company objective. This study develops and tests a framework for explaining how exposure and activity involvement moderate the effects of event image, event–sponsor fit, and event commercialization on sponsor image. Using empirical data collected at a large sporting event with multiple sponsors, the authors show that increased sponsorship exposure reduces sponsor image if respondents perceive a low fit between the event and sponsor or high levels of event commercialization. Involvement in the sponsored activity improves the sponsor's image, in that the effect of event commercialization is positive for highly involved persons. This paper concludes with some reasons for the findings, implications for the choice and design of sponsorships, and further areas for research.     

The influence of ad-evoked feelings on brand evaluations: Empirical generalizations from consumer responses to more than 1000 TV commercials

It has been observed that ad-evoked feelings exert a positive influence on brand attitudes. To investigate the empirical generalizability of this phenomenon, we analyzed the responses of 1576 consumers to 1070 TV commercials from more than 150 different product categories. The findings suggest five empirical generalizations. First, ad-evoked feelings indeed have a substantial impact on brand evaluations, even under conditions that better approximate real marketplace settings than past studies did. Second, these effects are both direct and indirect, with the indirect effects largely linked to changes in attitude toward the ad. Third, these effects do not depend on the level of involvement associated with the product category. However, fourth, the effects are more pronounced for hedonic products than utilitarian products. Finally, these effects do not depend on whether the products are durables, nondurables, or services, or whether the products are search goods or experience goods.