How does smog influence domestic tourism in China? A case study of Beijing

ABSTRACT

This study took Beijing as a case to examine the potential impact of smog on the domestic demand of tourist destinations in China. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was employed to explore and confirm the causal relationships between perception of travel risk, travel dissatisfaction, negative destination and avoidance tendency. It is found that the Mainland Chinese residents have a strong perception of the potential travel risk caused by smog in Beijing. Moreover, the impact of travel risk perception on avoidance tendency is indirect and works through the mediating variables such as travel dissatisfaction or negative destination image.     

The dynamics of tourism’s carbon footprint in Beijing,China

Abstract

Beijing is an important hub for global tourism, but the extent of tourism’s contribution to Beijing’s carbon footprint remains unclear. We integrated an environmentally extended multiregional input–output model and the tourism satellite account in a study to estimate the dynamics of Beijing’s tourism-related carbon footprint in the post-financial crisis period. Our findings indicate that from 2007 to 2012, whereas the carbon footprint of inbound tourists in Beijing steadily decreased, that of domestic tourists increased. The composition of carbon footprints for the consumption activities of inbound and domestic tourists differed substantially. We also traced the spatial distribution of carbon sources associated with tourism consumption in Beijing. In light of our findings, we offer recommendations to target the adoption of low-carbon consumption patterns by domestic tourists, and energy optimization of service suppliers by increasing energy use efficiency and the renewable energy ratio. In addition, we recommend that public and government should seek to lower energy costs and reduce carbon emissions throughout the life cycle of commodities. We conclude that the government and tourism authorities should actively promote carbon and wider environmental awareness, and that producers must seek to improve the efficiency of their energy use by reducing carbon emissions at source.     

The influence of service brand orientation on hotel employees’ attitude and behaviors in China

As foreign hotel brands continue to roll out their investment in China, the competitive landscape intensifies. Central to the success of these hotel brands is their ability to offer the unique features of their service offering, as reflected in the brand, in which employees play a key role. However, in the Chinese market, where the introduction of foreign hotel brands is in its initial stages, employee brand knowledge may be limited resulting in service behaviors that are inconsistent with the brand. Therefore, the adoption of a service brand orientation to guide employee attitudes and behavior is considered to be necessary. In an effort to realize productive service employees, this study examines the consequences of adopting a service brand orientation. Results suggest that a service brand orientation is imperative for positive employee brand-oriented behaviors as well as customer-oriented behaviors that are a consequence of an employee customer orientation.     

Agglomerating or dispersing? Spatial effects of high-speed trains on regional tourism economies

Following the paradigm of New Economic Geography, this study examines the impact of high-speed train (HST) services on the spatial structure of regional tourism economies in China. We collect panel data of 286 Chinese cities from 2007 to 2016 and adopt tourism-revenue location quotients to measure the relative agglomeration level of tourism economies for a city. According to the estimation results, tourism economies tend to agglomerate from the cities outside the HST network to those inside the network. Also, tourism economies start to disperse among cities within the network as more HST services become available. Furthermore, the results unveil the spatial heterogeneity of HST impacts. The moderating effects exerted by other transport modes are examined as well. Lastly, implications are provided for policy-makers and stakeholders on how to internalize the benefits from HST networks on tourism development.     

Look at me—I am flying: The influence of social visibility of consumption on tourism decisions

This article focuses on the impact of social visibility of consumption on tourists’ purchase decision making. We focus on two important purchase decisions leading up to the time of departure: the choice of destination and the choice of an airline to get to the he results show that when individuals are concerned with how they are evaluated by others, they are more inclined to letting their image of the destination inform their willingness to visit a particular holiday destination. Further, the airline’s country-of-origin turns out to be a far more salient and useful information cue the more the holiday is perceived as being socially visible. Finally, the results regarding social visibility are more pronounced among travelers who are susceptible to normative influence than for travelers who are not susceptible.     

Residents’ support for red tourism in China: The moderating effect of central government

This study proposes and tests a model that incorporates two competing theories of political trust, institutional trust and cultural trust, to examine community support for “red tourism” development. Using data gathered from residents living in close proximity to Jinggangshan Scenic Area in China, this study examines the influence of authoritarian values, particularly as they relate to level of residents’ power, their level of trust in government, and their effects on support for “red tourism.” Findings suggest that trust in central government moderates the relationship between trust in local government and support. Future studies should utilize the institutional trust framework to assess residents’ trust in the local government and the cultural trust framework to assess trust in the central government.     

Exploring the influence of tourists’ happiness on revisit intention in the context of Traditional Chinese Medicine cultural tourism

Based on how tourists interpret the destination experience and on attachment theory, this study investigates the influencing mechanism of tourists' happiness on revisit intention for traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) cultural tourism destinations. Three tourist samples confirm the three dimensions of tourists' happiness: positive emotions, engagement, and meaning. Two surveys were conducted to test the direct and indirect influence of tourists' happiness on revisit intention and the moderating role of tourists' health consciousness. The results show that tourists' happiness promotes memorable tourism experience and place attachment, in turn stimulating revisit intention. The results also support health consciousness as a significant moderator between happiness, place attachment, and revisit intention. The findings enrich theoretical understanding of tourists’ happiness and provide marketing and management advice for TCM cultural tourism destinations.     

Role of tourism in connecting Taiwan and China: Assessing tourists' perceptions of the Kinmen–Xiamen links

For a broad understanding of tourism across the Taiwan Strait, this paper previously draws on an overview of tourism and the evolutionary process of “Mini Three Links” policy between Kinmen (of Taiwan) and Xiamen (of China). Further, using empirical testing, the paper assesses the perceptions of Kinmen tourists towards China. The results reveal the fact that low-politics activity or people-to-people contacts can be an effective force to reduce tension. The finding of the paper also indicates that as long as tourism across the Taiwan Strait continues to grow, the relationship between Kinmen and Xiamen can therefore be normalized and promoted.     

Examination of tourism undergraduates’ industry commitment,in the context of China

Grounded in the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), this study developed a comprehensive research framework that encapsulated both personal and contextual factors in terms of tourism undergraduates’ commitment to career choice in the context of China’s social and vocational contexts. Applying structural equation modeling (SEM) to the data collected from 446 undergraduate students studying tourism in China, this study shows that “self-interest,” “others’ support,” “social status,” “outcome expectation” and “nature of work” exert significant effects on students’ commitment to career choice. Implications of the findings include suggested interventions in attracting tourism students to persist in their career path.     

Residents’ quality of life and attitudes toward tourism development in China

The purpose of this study is to explore the influence of quality of life (QOL) and residential status on resident attitudes toward further tourism development. The measurement of tourism and quality of life (TQOL) is modified. Using a sample of 562 residents from Shenzhen OCT community of China, this study has identified six TQOL domains and examines the effects of each TQOL domains based on the residential status and residents' attitudes in supporting further tourism development. The results reveal that the positive supporting attitudes of residents depends on the selected TQOL domains, especially on non-material improvements of TQOL. Tenants and dormitory residents have more positive attitudes than those house owners. This study also identifies four resident clusters with different attitudes and it is found that the residents’ attitudes of tourism development depend on whether they perceive the community as a place for earning a living or a place to live.     

Ethnic minority tourism in China – Han perspectives of Tuva figures in a landscape

Ethnic or indigenous tourism has attracted significant academic research, but with the exception of Taiwan's minorities much of the research in the English language journals has been dominated by the perspective of western tourists gazing upon the minorities. Additionally such studies have tended to be quantitative in nature. This paper studies the attitudes of Han tourists towards the Tuva minority of Kanas Scenic Area and reports results derived from 650 respondents. Equivalencies with western-based research are found, with about only 11 per cent of tourists having any significant interest in minority cultures, although evidence exists that Tuva and their Kazakh neighbours contribute to destination image as figures in the landscape – a landscape that is attractive to Han tourists for aesthetic and relaxation reasons. However, while simpler analysis is found to be effective in creating clusters, a causal model fails due to issues of auto-correlation and multi-collinearity, which problems may be pertinent in other studies that report the gaze of a majority on the culture of the minority. The implications of both findings and research method are discussed.     

The influence of travel photo editing on tourists’ experiences

Photo editing has become a prevalent practice when people share their travel photos on social media. This study examines this understudied phenomenon by exploring travelers' photo-editing behavior and its impact on tourists' destination experiences. Three pilot interviews and 23 in-depth interviews were conducted using photo-elicitation. The results show that photo editing does not necessarily alter the objective part of the trip memories, but rather reminds tourists of more positive than negative memories. Compliments from the social media audience on the edited photos improve tourists' overall recall of their destination experiences and further enhance their reflection on these experiences. The findings also enrich the understanding of the hermeneutic circle of representation in tourists’ photo editing behavior.     

Tourists’ perceptions of ethnic tourism in Lugu Lake,Yunnan, China

This paper examines tourists’ perceptions of ethnic tourism and satisfaction with their experiences based upon empirical research conducted in 2009 in Lugu Lake, Yunnan, China. The quest for romance and exoticism has inspired mass Han Chinese visits to the lake area. The tranquility of the lake and unique minority culture impress many urbanites and satisfy their nostalgia for the untouched, the simple, and the natural. Most tourists are satisfied with their overall experience and appreciate a packaged version of minority culture and tradition. However, a small number of visitors were disappointed about the commercial setting, inadequate tourist facilities, poor service, and limited tourism programs. Many tourists are concerned about cultural change and the loss of traditional customs. It is argued that maintaining authenticity and cultural integrity is essential for sustainable ethnic tourism development. Diverse and high-quality ethnic products should be developed to suit the different needs of the various types of tourists.     

A spatial–temporal analysis of hotels in urban tourism destination

This study investigates the spatial associations of urban tourism phenomena by using GIS and statistical methods to examine the relationships between hotels and land use types, attractions, transportation facilities, and the economic variables of the tertiary planning units in which the hotels are located. Hong Kong is used as an example. The study first introduces the spatial characteristics of hotels and attractions development in Hong Kong. A geographical information system is then used to map hotels and investigate the characteristics of the land use, attractions, and transport facilities around hotels. The spatial relationships are then analyzed with a set of logistic regression models. The results reveal that commercial land type and the number of attractions around hotels are significantly related to the distribution of upper-grade hotels in Hong Kong. The determinants vary over time and the spatial structure changes accordingly. The analysis is important theoretically as it enriches the methodologies for analyzing the relationships between hotels and urban structure, and for conceptualizing and identifying tourism functional zones. It is important for practitioners as it provides useful information for selecting sites for hotels.     

The sustainability–profitability trade-off in tourism: can it be overcome?

This paper answers key questions about personal and industry decision-making in implementing sustainable tourism. Being environmentally friendly is typically associated with sacrifice, including sacrifice of comfort (e.g. walking rather than driving), sacrifice of time (e.g. recycling garbage) or sacrifice of money (e.g. buying more expensive locally grown vegetables). Consequently, the tourism industry perceives sustainable tourism as a sacrificial touristic niche, one that is associated with additional cost but appears to attract customers who do not spend enough money to compensate for the extra effort. This paper explores a perceived trade-off between minimising environmental damage and maximising revenue, by finding market segments that are environmentally friendly and have high expenditures. An online survey was made of 1003 Australian domestic tourists. Results indicate that tourist segments vary significantly in terms of their environmental impacts and vacation expenditure. Six segments were identified. Two market segments, containing 40% of the total market, that leave small environmental footprints while maintaining high expenditure were found, indicating that market segmentation when coupled with marketing/demarketing policies can be used as a strategy complementary to the development of destination-based initiatives to reduce the environmental impact of tourism.     

The impacts of student and life satisfaction on tourism students’ perceived sense of belonging

This study explores how tourism students’ satisfaction with their lives and academics affect their sense of belonging within their school communities. The primary supporting research was conducted using a questionnaire, which 285 students in Akdeniz University’s Faculty of Tourism answered. The mean scores of the two scales (life satisfaction and sense of belonging) and the dimensions of student satisfaction were used to conduct multiple regression analysis. The results suggest that two aspects of student life (teaching staff and school management vs. student support and counseling) and life satisfaction had a direct correlation with students’ sense of belonging.     

The social influence of other consumers on consumers’ reward donations

Loyalty reward programs and corporate social responsibility initiatives are ubiquitous in today’s corporate world, yet little is known how they can be synthesized to benefit companies and those in need. In two studies, we examine how the social influence of other consumers (the presence of other consumers and loyalty status tier) interact with reward type (effort-based vs. surprise) to influence consumers’ propensity to donate their loyalty rewards to charity. Furthermore, we uncover the underlying psychological mechanisms (i.e. instrumentality and self-enhancement) explaining the effects. Our findings indicate that hospitality operators should design loyalty reward programs that involve the presence of other consumers to induce reward donations. However, if the goal is to solicit donations from solo consumers, surprise rewards (vs. effort-based rewards) are more effective. In addition, we show that both types of rewards are effective among high-tier consumers, whereas only surprise rewards lead to high donation intent among low status consumers.     

The influence of face on Chinese tourists’ gift purchase behaviour: The moderating role of the gift giver–receiver relationship

This study investigated the influence of face as a Chinese cultural value on Chinese outbound group tourists' gift purchase behaviour. Specifically, the study examined how face's impact on gift purchase behaviour is moderated by the gift giver–receiver relationship. The results confirmed that self-face concern positively affected gift selection effort, brand orientation, and purchase cost in gift purchase. The type and status aspects of the giver–receiver relationship were found to moderate the relationship between face concern and gift purchase behaviour. Self-face concern has a stronger impact on gift purchase for non-family receivers and higher status receivers. The findings suggest that cultural values and social relations in the home society exert influence on tourist behaviours even though tourists are physically away from home. This study also provides valuable practical implications for destinations wishing to better understand the shopping needs of Chinese tourists.     

Are neighbour tourists more sensitive to crowding? The impact of distance on the crowding-out effect in tourism

The concept of the crowding-out effect has been employed in the tourism literature to analyse complex phenomena. However, there is limited insight into the crowding-out effect on tourists by tourists, and even less into the impact of distance on the crowding-out of tourists. This paper examines the relationship between crowding perceptions, tourists' attitudes toward crowding and the consequences of being crowded out. Results from a sample of 729 international tourists in Hong Kong suggest that there is a crowding-out effect on tourists by tourists, but this has only a marginal influence on the majority. The limited crowding-out effect is induced by tourists in general rather than by a single segment. The study also investigates the effect of distance on tourist crowding. The findings reveal a decaying effect of distance on tourists’ crowding perceptions, as neighbour tourists are more susceptible to tourist crowding than tourists from long-haul markets.     

The evaluation of tourism destination competitiveness by TOPSIS & information entropy – A case in the Yangtze River Delta of China

Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) was proposed by Hwang and Yoon as a multiple criteria decision making (MCDM) method, which identifies solutions from a finite set of alternatives. TOPSIS is based on the concept that the chosen alternative should have the shortest distance from the positive ideal solution (PIS) and the farthest distance from the negative ideal solution (NIS). In this study, the method was applied to evaluate the tourism destination competitiveness (TDC) of the Yangtze River Delta in China. This empirical study was based on a two-step procedure. The first procedure consisted of three hierarchies, four aspects and 35 evaluation indices, which were weighted by the information entropy weight (IEW). Secondly, the TOPSIS method was applied to the ranking analysis. This gave the most important index for each aspect by IEW. It also provided the ranking for 16 cities in the Yangtze River Delta based on four aspects, as well as the final overall ranking among them. Finally, the tactics and means for the cities to improve their tourism competitiveness were discussed. The results showed that TOPSIS & IEW can be implemented as an effective method in TDC evaluation.