参与式方法在集体林权制度改革中的应用思考

中国的集体林是一个特殊的、具有历史性、复杂性和关键性的产权系统。当前,中国政府正在开展集体林林权制度改革,希望通过改革能促进林业的发展。林权改革的目的在于通过明晰产权,进一步把森林管理的权力下放并改善权属的安全性。作为林业管理和改革的主体与核心,林农的参与十分重要。从参与的概念出发,探讨了在集体林权改制中应用参与式方法的可能性、应用的领域和应该注意的问题。建议在改革全过程中必须确保有实际意义的真正参与。     

应用参与式方法开展国内造林工作的若干思考

通过对现行体制下国内造林活动的基本过程和外援林业项目中的参与式造林过程进行比较,分析了应用参与式方法开展国内造林的必要性和难点,提出了引入参与式理念开展国内造林工作的建议。     

Benefit distribution across scales to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) in Vietnam

At very high policy levels, efforts to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) are considered to be innovative and cost-effective ways to make forest more valuable standing than cut. In response to climate change, international funding to support reductions in emissions needs to balance conservation and development. The Government of Vietnam is currently coordinating the design of a comprehensive benefit-distribution system, with the ambition to convert certified net emissions reductions into REDD+ revenue and distribute it to local partners in a transparent, equitable and cost-effective manner. A pilot scheme is underway in Bac Kan province. With forest cover of 56.6% and a poverty rate of 36.6%, Bac Kan is among the most heavily forested and poorest provinces of Vietnam, making it a potential site for pioneering REDD+ schemes in the country.Research questions were how to incorporate international, national and local stakeholders’ investments into any distribution scheme; and how to sustain and manage an efficient, effective and equitable funding scheme for environmental services, including REDD+ revenues. Multiple data collection and analytical methods (including participatory approaches) were used to answer both research questions. Additionally, for the second question, we employed cost-benefit, opportunity cost and economic analyses.Three key concepts formed the research frame for this paper: (1) benefit-distribution systems; (2) reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation plus conservation (REDD+); and (3) the broader concept of payments or rewards for ecosystem services; as well as lessons learned from existing, similar schemes.This results shows that an appropriate benefit-sharing system for REDD+ revenues can be developed in such a way that meets international regulations as well as national and sub-national circumstances, particularly for the environmental services’ providers who directly protect forests. Vietnam's payments for forest environmental services’ and integrated conservation schemes (where conservation and rural development are integrated) serve as a base for the development of a REDD+ benefit-distribution system.We discuss ways of bundling such schemes with REDD+ ‘service’ payments and income streams from forestry and agroforestry ‘goods’ to provide short-term food-security/economic return and long-term environmental benefits. This combination is expected to provide sustainable incentives, but further effort is needed in the use of participatory methods and a ‘bottom-up’ approach to provide a strong base for an effective and equitable REDD+ mechanism at landscape level.Experience drawn from Vietnam, in general, and in Bac Kan, in particular, can be replicated and directly contribute to reducing carbon emissions globally.     

Cross-level information and influence in mandated participatory planning: Alternative pathways to sustainable water management in Germany's implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive

State and non-state actors increasingly work across scales to address complex environmental problems. Prior studies of stakeholder participation have not fully examined how collaborative processes play out in multi-level policymaking. At the same time, multi-level governance studies do not adequately investigate the impacts of stakeholder participation. This study examines the cross-level interactions of influence and information in the participatory implementation of the European Union's Water Framework Directive. This directive is an example of mandated participatory planning, a relatively new approach that engages grassroots collaboration through a top-down structure with nested policy cycles. A case analysis of three collaborative planning units in the Land of Lower Saxony, within the federal governance structure of Germany, finds limited influence and information transmission across levels via formal planning and implementation processes. However, the collaborative efforts did yield alternative pathways for achieving substantive progress toward the directive's aims via learning, coordination, and buy-in among participants.     

我国林业经济体制转型的现实制度分析

分析了当前我国林业制度安排上存在与“社会办林业”不相适应的一系列问题:⑴在林地与森林资源产权界定上存在着不严密与不完整;⑵林地和森林资源产权主体虚置、权能不清;⑶森林资源产权的“委托-代理”关系制度扭曲,同时缺乏约束机制;⑷森林限额采伐制度安排与执行过程中存在缺陷;⑸森林生态效益补偿的对象、标准、使用管理等方面制度安排不科学等问题。研究认为,要保障我国社会办林业战略的有效实施,就必须对我国的林业制度进行变革与创新,作出新的制度安排。     

Social landscape: Ten years of planning ‘valuable landscapes’ in Estonia

This paper gives an overview of theme planning on designating valuable landscapes in Estonia (1999–2003) and traces its impacts through the decade up to the present. We claim that in addition to the mapped list of valuable landscapes and their attributes as we have described them, this planning exercise called forth changes in society as well as in landscapes and their appreciation. As the project applied participatory planning tools unprecedented in post-communist Estonia, the Estonian word for landscape (maastik) is now being used more in everyday language, according to the way its meaning altered in the process.     

林改后集体林森林资源管理改革的探讨

福建省集体林产权制度改革后,亟需解决森林资源保护和利用、森林经营方案的实施、森林经营主体众多与森林采伐指标分配、控制森林资源的盗伐、滥伐、森林经营方案编制主体与森林经营方案执行主体错位等问题。要解决以上问题,森林资源管理的改革应以科学编制森林经营方案为基础,森林经营方案编制应以森林经营单位为主体,林业各级主管部门只能为森林经营方案编制工作的提供科学指导和服务,而不能替代森林经营单位编制森林经营方案。同时严格实施经审批审核的森林经营方案,实行可调森林采伐限额制度,严格森林采伐区管理办法。     

Approaches to validating a mutual participatory web-planning interface in rural Extremadura (Spain)

In this work, a mutual participatory web-planning interface was developed to support rural tourism building integrations into a landscape that combines multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA); an application of the proposed interface for the Hervás region (northern Extremadura region) in Spain is further presented. Through the web interface with the given methods, stakeholders can reflect upon their individual experiences to achieve desirable planning outcomes through asynchronous, distributed collaboration with the public. Based on the qualitative and quantitative content and survey data set, this study examined the identification of spatial models that could implement different perceptions and promote the sharing of knowledge about integrating buildings into a rural landscape, the certification of the possible impact on tourism and the refining of the interface's usability. To strengthen data interpretation, these hypotheses were analysed by four different clusters of people with the aid of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and principal component analysis (PCA) tests: weak ties, socially linked, roots and resources, and dedicated to the place, based on social and emotional terms. In general, most participants gave a positive response to the questions and an interesting fact amongst the findings was the difference between roots and resources (positive to building integrations) and dedicated to the place (negative to building integrations). Thus, the analysed results demonstrated that the web interface could achieve a consensus on recommendations for the spatial planning with the implementation of decision alternatives and understanding of the other interest groups’ preferences.     

Performance of success and failure in grassroots conservation and development interventions: Gender dynamics in participatory forest management in India

Co-governance of forests, or participatory forest management, has been a wide-spread conservation and development (C&D) intervention in India for over two decades. The practice began in the 1990s as Joint Forest Management (JFM), where local communities – organised into forest protection committees (FPCs) – worked in cooperation with various state forest departments. Later on, this intervention took shape of Community Forest Management (CFM), where communities managed their forests largely independent of the forest departments. Under both the JFM and CFM models, gender mainstreaming – enabling equal distribution of opportunities and services across genders – held a pivotal position. This study shows that despite continued marginalisation, female FPC members often performed as if initiatives were successful. Thus, the central question investigated in this paper is: "Why women performed success in participatory forest management interventions while experiencing marginalisation in the FPC?” This paper adopts an ethnographic case study methodology (immersion), utilising in-depth ethnographic case studies from three states of India for analysing performances of success and the resulting dynamics of participation, to explain the gendered nuances of the grassroots conservation and development interventions. The concept of 'situated agency' of community actors is explored to understand the practices around the performances of success in C&D interventions in forest-dependent communities in India. The paper argues that these performances hold the promise of a slow, but steady progress towards the creation of a gender-sensitive system in an otherwise patriarchal social structure.     

Towards understanding and resolving the conflict related to the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) conservation with participatory management planning

Conflicts often arise in relation to the conservation of protected predator species. If stakeholders are well defined and involved in participatory processes, their views and perceptions can be incorporated and steps can be made towards resolving such conflicts. In this paper, a case from Hungary is presented. In this case, a participatory management planning process was initiated in the Jászság Special Protection Area of European importance (SPA), within the frame of a LIFE+ project focusing on the conservation of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca). It provided a good opportunity to address a complex conflict situation between nature conservationists, game managers and farmers. We identified structural conflicts such as contradictions between direct agricultural payments and nature conservation goals, conflicts related to different views of the main influencing factors, relational problems between various stakeholders, and even differences in value orientation. The participatory management planning process was successful in clarifying the conflict situation and making productive steps toward a common understanding and resolution. Besides the mutually agreed conservation measures, the establishment of an administrative and financial incentive such as the high nature value area (HNVA) scheme proved to be an especially important factor for mitigating the conflict. It also contributed to a more successful realisation of nature conservation objectives in an area dominated by private land owners. However, continued interaction and cooperation are needed to stabilise this progress. Our paper also shows that stakeholder involvement in conservation management planning can transcend the strategic dimension of participation, and address broader common values besides the interests of land user groups.     

Making community forest management work in northern Vietnam by pioneering participatory action

Transfer of land-use rights from the state to individual households and groups of households to encourage community forest management (CFM) and use of forest resources for livelihood improvement, has been in place in Vietnam since the 1990s. However, to date there has been no evidence of allocation to groups of households as community entities with joint ownership. This paper examines the success of processes tested in four villages in mountainous northern Vietnam to officially secure joint ownership of and exclusive rights to community forest land. After four years, implementation of CFM led to enhanced equality and distribution of benefits, and better protection of forest resources. Household income remained largely unchanged, in part because of loss of income from activities which were now illegal, but also because it was too early for benefits to flow from new forestry initiatives. Active participation of and between village communities in land-use planning and allocation, and a willingness to compromise, particularly on the position of land boundaries, were essential elements to ensuring equity in the distribution of benefits. Lack of enabling processes and experience in the implementation of government policies mean that further support for village communities is needed to fully realize the benefits from joint management of the allocated community forest.     

Analysing foregone costs of communities and carbon benefits in small scale community based forestry practice in Nepal

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conservation and sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon (REDD+) are considered to be important cost effective approaches for global climate change mitigation; therefore, such practices are evolving as the REDD+ payment mechanism in developing countries. Using six years (2006–2012) data, this paper analyses trade-offs between carbon stock gains and the costs incurred by communities in generating additional carbon in 105 REDD+ pilot community forests in Nepal. It estimates foregone benefits for communities engaged in increasing carbon stocks in various dominant vegetation types. At recent carbon and commodity prices, communities receive on average US$ 0.47/ha/year of carbon benefits with the additional cost of US$ 67.30/ha/year. One dollar’s worth of community cost resulted 0.23 Mg of carbon sequestration. Therefore, carbon payment alone may not be an attractive incentive within small-scale community forestry and should link with payments for ecosystem services. Moreover, the study found highest community sacrificed benefits in Shorea mixed broadleaf forests and lowest in Schima-Castanopsis forests, while carbon benefits were highest in Pine forests followed by Schima-Castanopsis forests and lowest in Rhododendron-Quercus forests. This indicates that costs and benefits may vary by vegetation type. A policy should consider payment for other environmental services, carbon gains, co-benefits and trade off while designing the REDD+ mechanism in community based forest land use practice with equitable community outcomes. The learning from this study will help in the formulation of an appropriate REDD+ policy for community forestry.     

激励农户持续有效参与退耕还林工程的机制创新分析

通过剖析当前退耕还林工程农户参与程度状况,指出了农户参与层次和参与深度有待提升;进而提出了一套激励农户参与的机制创新体系,包括可持续的农户自我发展机制、参与式的工程运行机制和公平有效的配套保障机制,并重点分析了多元补偿激励机制、林权安全保障机制、退耕生态林国家收购机制等政府配套保障机制。     

Design of a decision support tool for visualising E. coli risk on agricultural land using a stakeholder-driven approach

Enabling knowledge exchange between scientists and decision-makers is becoming increasingly necessary to promote the development of effective decision-support tools (DSTs) for environmental management. Participation of stakeholders in the design process beyond a basic level of consultation is essential for promoting trust in modelled outputs and accelerating eventual uptake of resulting tools and models by end-user communities. This study outlines the development of a DST to visualise and communicate the spatial and temporal patterns of E. coli (a faecal indicator organism) on agricultural land, as a first step in managing microbial pollution risks to the wider environment. A participatory approach was used to engage regulators, catchment managers, environmental scientists, farmers and farm advisors, researchers in geospatial technologies and water industry staff in the co-design of a novel, user-friendly and accessible DST for guiding on-farm microbial risk assessment. Recommendations for maximising the benefits of a participatory process to DST design are discussed with reference to a series of opportunities and limitations identified by our stakeholder cohort during the development of the Visualising Pathogen & Environmental Risk (ViPER) DST. The resulting toolkit provides environmental managers and farm advisors with one of the first freely-available DSTs for visualising patterns of E. coli inputs to pasture in space and time, and begins to address the lack of advisory tools currently available for informing decision-making with respect to managing microbial risks in agricultural systems.     

林业企业实施森林认证的成本效益分析

鉴于森林认证的迅速发展以及在中国的起步态势,通过构建林业企业实施森林认证的成本效益量化分析模型对林业企业实施森林认证的成本效益进行分析。分析表明林业企业实施森林认证的综合效益的均衡值是存在的,森林认证机构、政府及林业行政部门应加快整顿市场经济秩序,林业企业实施森林认证后,在开发中必须要从全局出发,从整体上把握好森林资源开发的经济阈值和生态阈值,进一步提升林业企业实施森林认证的生态经济效应。     

林业补贴政策对浙江林农营林投入和收入影响分析

基于浙江省3县368户农户的调查数据,采用双重差分模型(DID)研究实施中央财政林业补贴政策对林农营林投入和收入的影响。结果表明:实施林业补贴政策可以显著增加农户的营林投入,但对农户的营林增收没有显著带动作用,这证明林业补贴能够有效刺激林农的营林积极性,但增收效果仍有待观察。因此,选取林业补贴对象应注重"普惠+特惠"制、林业补贴政策需长期稳定执行、政府部门应加强林业补贴政策的宣传力度。     

林权制度改革背景下农户参与森林认证探讨——基于云南省492户农户的调查分析

通过对云南省492户农户调查发现:户均林地规模小、林业收入占农户收入比重小、农户森林经营水平有限、农户对森林认证的认知率低、农户认证的有效需求低等因素严重制约了农户参与森林认证;当然,明晰的产权也为农户参与森林认证提供了制度基础。提出相应政策建议:加大森林认证宣传、编制适用于小规模林农的认证标准、对农户认证实行生态效益补贴、实施团体认证、进行认证前培训并发挥专业合作组织在森林认证中的作用。     

论乡村参与性森林经营管理

实施参与性森林经营管理是我国农村经济改革20多年来在森林经营管理方面的重要举措,对加强森林资源保护、加快森林资源增长、促进林业可持续发展具有重要意义。本文概括总结了参与性森林经营管理的主要形式,分析了实施效果和影响因素,提出了实施中应注意的一些问题及建议。     

Are forest plantation subsidies affecting land use change and off-farm income? A farm-level analysis of Chilean small forest landowners

Forest plantations have increased rapidly in the last three decades, to a large extent due to direct and indirect financial incentives. At the farm level, forestry incentives can affect the investment decisions of small forest landowners and bring socioeconomic externalities or unintended effects associated with farm management. The purpose of this study is to assess the ex post impacts of a forestry subsidy on land use changes and off-farm income experienced by Chilean small forest landowners. A structural equation mediation model (SEM) was estimated using a time frame of 15 years (1998–2013). To reduce the selection bias, propensity score matching (PSM) was performed prior to the estimation of the SEM. Results indicate that the subsidy had a significant effect on land use changes, as it increases forest plantations and replaces pastures primarily, but also crops and native forest to a lesser extent. In addition, beneficiaries of the subsidy had a marginal increase in off-farm income not explained by the increase in forest plantation.     

Participation in the implementation of Natura 2000: A comparative study of six EU member states

The establishment of Natura 2000, the European Union’s network of protected areas, has been a challenging process and has caused a variety of conflicts. These conflicts are related to contradictory stakeholder interests and perceptions, as well as to procedural issues and feelings of exclusion, especially by concerned local land user groups. To prevent further conflict, local participation has been stressed as an important tool to increase the inclusiveness of Natura 2000 and its acceptance among land users. In this paper, we present an analysis of participation practices related to the Natura 2000 implementation processes in six EU member states. Based on material collected from semi-structured interviews and document analysis, we describe the organisational settings of the participatory processes, focusing, among other things, on the type of participants involved, the level and intensity of their involvement, and the goal of participation. In addition, we also describe the local context in which the participation processes have been embedded. Finally, we assess the outcomes of the participatory processes in terms of their impact on forest and nature conservation management practices. Our results show that local participation practices were shaped not just by the Natura 2000 policy, but also by the history of the area, including, for example, earlier conflicts among the local actors. We also show that although the participation process leads to a greater acceptance of the Natura 2000 policy, this does not relate to significant changes in management practices among local actors. These findings, however, do not suggest that participation is irrelevant. Rather, we conclude that participation involves context-dependent, localised learning processes that can only be understood by taking the historical socio-economic and institutional context in which they are situated into account.