内蒙古自治区湿地生态系统特征及驱动力分析

[目的]分析维持湿地生态系统平衡的主要影响因子,对提高湿地生态环境管理具有重要意义。[方法]利用内蒙古湿地资源调查数据,采用层次分析法,对内蒙古自治区内湿地环境因子进行了分级与综合评价。将所调查的影响因子划分为自然指标和社会环境指标两类,并参考国内外评价指标标准,从景观指标、生物多样性指标、环境指标、人为干扰指标和威胁指标等5个方面,构建湿地生态系统特征评价体系;筛选出天然湿地率、湿地斑块密度、湿地利用状况、人口密度、人类活动强度及农药化肥施用强度等18个指标进行标准化分级,并确定指标权重。根据各指标对湿地生态系统的影响程度,分析湿地生态系统特征的主要驱动因素。[结果]对湿地生态系统特征具有显著影响的主要因素依次为:水质级别、单位面积物种多度、植被覆盖度、威胁程度、富营养化程度及威胁因子数量,且景观指标中的景观多样性、湿地斑块密度及景观均匀度对湿地生态格局影响较小。[结论]内蒙古自治区内湿地生态系统受社会环境因素影响较大,应加强湿地生态保护。     

The Scops owl (Otus scops) under human-induced environmental change pressure

Biodiversity is declining across Europe. Modern agricultural practices, habitat fragmentation, land abandonment and climate change are key factors causing current trends in environmental change. Mobile organisms such as raptors, positioned high in the food chain, are good indicators of negative or positive landscape dynamics, since their response is fast. This assumption was tested by investigating the Scops Owl (Otus scops) population in a traditional Central European cultural landscape (Goričko Nature Park [GNP]) in Slovenia. The negative trend in male calling Scops Owls was correlated with static and dynamic environmental change variables derived from remotely sensed or field-based, multi-temporal data sources. Key geospatial predictors were identified and used for bird calling and breeding (C&B) suitability modelling. All geospatial models developed predicted a decline in C&B suitability (even by 33%) in almost all areas where the bird is currently active. However, the NE part of the GNP could achieve better C&B conditions for theScops Owl in the coming years (a potential 36% increase in suitability). Predictions indicate that more effort and action, to conserve the Scops Owl in the study area should be implemented in the N, NE and E part of the hilly GNP. Our results are thus highly applicable not just for decision makers in this protected area but rather in all areas across the Scops Owl’s continental population, since the methodology is easily replicable and transferable.     

Farmland habitat diversity in Ireland

While appreciation of the fundamental role biodiversity plays in underpinning the long-term sustainability of agricultural systems is growing, international commitments to preserve and protect this natural resource have not yet been achieved. Loss and degradation of farmland habitats are an important contributor to the continued decline of biodiversity. Despite this, little information is available regarding the diversity and ecological condition of farmland habitats in Europe. Indeed, where habitat data are available, this is usually at a very broad landscape scale rather than farm scale. Coupled with this, strategies to increase agricultural output in response to growing global population, will likely place increasing pressure on farmland biodiversity. Knowledge and ongoing monitoring of farmland habitat type and extent is a prerequisite for the future protection of much of Europe’s biodiversity. Here we report the findings of a national scale survey of farmland habitat diversity in Ireland.Detailed surveys of farm habitats and management practices (system, stocking rate agri-environment scheme participation status and organic N and P inputs) were undertaken on 118 farms in three regions of the Republic of Ireland (RoI). Recorded farm habitats were subsequently digitised on orthophotography. The resulting ground truthed data from the total surveyed area of 3688 ha, were then used, together with satellite imagery, to classify the habitat composition of a further approximately 87,000 ha of the surrounding landscape.Results revealed that at individual farm scale, an average of 73% of the land surveyed comprised agriculturally productive (mainly improved grassland) habitats. Marginally productive habitats (mainly extensively managed grasslands) accounted for an average of 11% of farm area, while other semi-natural habitats (mainly hedgerows) accounted for an average of 13%, with the remaining ca. 3% under build ground. Results from the classification at the wider landscape scale showed a similarly substantial incidence of non-intensively managed habitats. However, at both farm and landscape scales, habitat diversity was found to vary markedly between different regions and farming systems.This study represents one of a very small number that currently exist, where farm scale habitat and management data have been collected. From the few that are available, semi-natural habitat cover has been found to account for an average farm area of 1–12%. Therefore, our data present a relatively positive picture in terms of the intensity, scale and impact of Irish farming on landscape heterogeneity. However, as in other parts of the world, agricultural expansion and intensification to meet increased global food supply will necessitate careful monitoring of the impact of these changes on the structure of farmed landscapes. This study provides a novel approach for the collection of such monitoring data at farm scale, and illustrates how such data can be reliably up-scaled to landscape level.     

农田中非耕作生境对耕地多功能影响研究

[目的]从耕地的生产功能、生态服务功能、社会保障功能和景观文化功能角度出发,探讨耕地系统中非耕作生境对这些功能的影响的方向和程度,以期为今后耕地系统中生态网络优化以及绿色土地整治提供参考。[方法]文章运用3S技术法提取非耕作生境数据,按照非耕作生境比例由低到高在辽宁省沈阳市沈北新区水田区选择调查点。运用层次分析法计算调查点耕地多功能值,运用统计分析法研究非耕作生境比例变化对耕地生产、社会保障、生态服务及景观文化功能的影响。[结果](1)当非耕作生境比例低于22.54%和17.16%时,随着非耕作生境比例增加耕地生产、社会保障功能呈增强趋势;当其比例大于22.54%时和17.16%,随着非耕作生境比例增加耕地生产、社会保障功能呈减弱趋势。(2)随着非耕作生境面积比增加,耕地生态服务和景观文化功能均呈增强趋势。(3)当非耕作生境面积比低于22.54%时,随着非耕作生境比例增加耕地多功能呈增强趋势;当其比例大于22.54%时,随着非耕作生境比例增加耕地多功能呈减弱趋势。[结论]非耕作生境比例对耕地生产、社会保障功能影响均呈现先增后减趋势,对耕地生态服务功能、耕地景观文化功能的影响趋势均呈现递增趋势,对耕地多功能综合影响呈先增后减趋势。     

Impact of land ownership and altitude on biodiversity evaluated by indicators at the landscape level in Central Italy

This study analyzed the ecological role of agroecosystems in maintaining landscape diversity and sustainability using selected indicators and indexes in Central Italy. The study focuses on analysing ecological systems at the landscape level to assess the environmental sustainability in terms of land cover composition and diversity. We used geographical information systems, landscape fragmentation and heterogeneity to determine the ecotone types and patch characteristics and gather useful information based on ownership (private and public areas) and altitude (plain, hilly, and mountain areas).The results showed that private areas had major landscape heterogeneity, which increased both the presence of ecotones and land cover diversification. There was a higher level of landscape heterogeneity and land cover diversification in plain and hilly areas, where agriculture was mostly present. There was also an increase of margins and/or hedgerows. Publicly owned areas generally had permanent land cover types, such as woods and pastures with low human influence, that induce biodiversity conservation. Privately owned areas were mainly characterized by cultivated land with high human influence that requires careful biodiversity management. However, most important ecological structures, such as ecotones, occurred where human land use intensity was at its highest level (plain-hilly areas and private ownership areas), and this could help to maintain and increase the biodiversity of the agricultural landscape. In Central Italy, there is an acceptable level of landscape sustainability achieved by integrating both private and public types of management.     

Progressive fragmentation of a traditional Mediterranean landscape by hazelnut plantations: The impact of CAP over time in the Langhe region (NW Italy)

Land use change is strongly modifying the traditional landscape of hilly productive Mediterranean sites. An example of these circumstances is the Langhe region (Piemonte, NW Italy), where woody plantations such as vineyards and orchards have been cultivated on hillslopes for centuries. In this paper we assess landscape changes occurred in the Diano study area (2651 ha) in the 1954–2000 period and we ascertain land use transition paths and rates of this rural ecosystem. Land use mapping obtained from object-oriented analysis of aerial photographs was used to quantify land use changes between 1954 and 2000. To examine the spatio-temporal patterns of land use change over time, a set of spatial statistics capturing different dimensions of landscape change was identified. An increase of landscape heterogeneity from 1954 to the present was observed due to the expansion of orchards and the fragmentation of field crops. A significant portion (55%) of current orchards surface is represented by former field crops, 24% by vineyards and 15% by forests. The strong expansion of hazelnut orchards concurred to the fragmentation of traditional rural landscape was dominated by vineyards, field crops and forests. Hazelnut orchards expansion was mainly located in places where grapes cultivation was less remunerative. A further expansion of hazelnut in the area should be planned, discussed and carefully monitored through change detection studies in order to avoid potential unsustainable use of the land.     

Progress in indicators to assess agricultural landscape valuation: how and what is measured at different levels of governance

Landscape is defined by the European Landscape Convention as “an area perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”. Many efforts have been devoted in addressing the core concepts on which this definition roots: perception and interaction of men and nature, but when coming to large (continental) scale assessments, the latter prevail on the former.This paper aims at presenting a framework for a measurable landscape awareness indicator as a key link to the public demand for a specific type of landscape: the agricultural landscape. This is a necessary effort to complement more physically based assessments, which include as well the impact of human activities on landscapes.The analysis is carried out at different levels of governance: EU and regional, using an example from the Alentejo region in Portugal and EU wide databases, and addresses conceptual and practical questions: what type of societal landscape awareness can be monitored and by whom (e.g., individuals, specific social groups, society as a whole); what are the landscape dimensions that should be assessed; what are the limitations imposed by data-related constraints. By applying the methodology to build composite indicators to map landscape societal awareness, the paper shows the regional and local meaning of indicator approaches developed at European level, presents developments for downscaling to regional level, while introducing the social component to support sound policy development for European rural landscapes.     

Impacts of Decoupled Agricultural Support on Farm Structure,Biodiversity and Landscape Mosaic: Some EU Results

The decoupling of direct payments from production represents a substantial reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Farmers are no longer required to produce commodities to be entitled to support but only to keep land in Good Environmental and Agricultural Condition. If output declines as a result, there is concern that landscape services produced jointly with commodities will also decline. The aim of this paper is to assess the long‐term effects of the 2003 reform on farm structure, landscape mosaic and biodiversity for a sample of EU regions. Impacts are quantified using a spatial agent‐based modelling approach by simulating agricultural development with links to indicators of landscape value. Our results demonstrate that eliminating the link between support payments and production has possible negative consequences for the landscape, but only under particular circumstances. It is shown that these effects could be offset by strengthening (Pillar II) agri‐environmental schemes. Further the single payment scheme results in higher land rental prices which reduces its ability to achieve its goal of providing income security for farmers. Implications of these results for the direction of continued CAP reform are discussed.     

Adaptive farm management in the context of the expansion of industrial tree plantations in northern Argentina

Landscape reconversion by plantation-oriented forestry is associated with transformations in regional economic systems. Under such change, rural communities develop different environmental and economic management strategies. Due to forest plantation growth since the 1970's in Misiones, Argentina, different areas of production can be identified according to the intensity of the forestry management model carried out. Each area defines a forestry productive landscape in which local rural populations are immersed. In this study, we describe and analyse the agricultural production strategies of Colonos (settlers) according to the size of industrial tree plantations. We offer insights into the construction of an adaptive, agrobiodiverse strategy in the context of the dominant forestry industry. Considering historical processes and current land use, we expected to find less diversity and overall development of the family productive system among rural families living in more homogenized, plantation-dominated landscapes. Qualitative and quantitative data was gathered to assess the agricultural richness and producers´ related production management. Departing from the idea that the homogenization of the landscape diminishes the diversification of the family productive system, we found that families have been able to shape the components of their subsistence in complex environments. In other words, in the face of change and instability, Colono farmers were able to reconfigure and incorporate diverse agricultural strategies. Also, they engage in biologically diverse farming systems and provide ecological heterogeneity to a regional landscape deeply transformed by tree plantations.     

Motivations and experiences in managing rare semi-natural biotopes: A case from Finland

Traditional rural biotopes (TRBs) are semi-natural farmland habitats of high nature value formed through traditional agricultural activities, such as grazing and fodder collection. The aims of this study were to 1) understand manager motivations for managing TRBs and their attitudes toward TRB conservation and 2) determine whether TRB managers differ in attitude, motivation for management, experiences or area under management depending on whether their managed TRBs are integrated or separate from their farming systems. Farmers and landowners (N = 27) managing TRBs in coastal Finland were interviewed. In addition to quantitative analysis, responses were mapped with DebateGraph for inductive analysis to discern patterns amongst the two groups and to explore a series of questions related to motivations. Although area under management and farming strategy varied amongst managers, they all had a positive view toward the existential value of TRBs. A small group of “TRB entrepreneurs”, whose farming strategy was based on grazing primarily rented TRBs was identified. Their farming income was dependent upon direct sale of meat and participation in agri-environmental scheme for TRB management. Desire for open landscape was the primary motivation for managing TRBs and strongly outweighed extrinsic values such as fodder production and AES. Higher TRB: farm ratio was associated with more positive attitude toward TRBs and TRB conservation. No difference was found in motivation for management between the two farmer groups. Although motivations were similar, improved and tailored extension services for TRB managers could promote their conservation management.     

Ecological networks: Are they enough for connectivity conservation? A case study in the Barcelona Metropolitan Region (NE Spain)

This paper extends the debate on corridor effectiveness at regional planning scale, by exploring the contribution to landscape connectivity of a proposed ecological network and the remaining non-urbanized matrix in the Barcelona Metropolitan Region (BMR). Using the Ecological Connectivity Index, we evaluated the expected connectivity loss after the development of the approved urban plans in the region. Thus, we compared the baseline (present-day) and the projected (after planned urban development) connectivity scenarios for total, forest and agricultural habitats. Then, we estimated the mitigation in connectivity loss when successively removing from plans those development sectors included in protected sites, first order corridors, and second-order corridors of the ecological network, and in the rest of land matrix. Estimations were done for all the BMR and for inside versus outside the set of sites currently protected.The ecological network and the rest of matrix contributed equally to mitigating the expected connectivity loss, but while the former was more effective for forest habitats, the latter was especially constructive for croplands. This was due to a heterogeneous distribution of habitats, protected reserves and urban development areas. Still, connectivity preservation within protected sites appeared to be highly dependent on what is going on outside the ecological network, as we observed in particular for agricultural habitats. This result extends at regional scale the statement that no park is an island, but is highly affected by the land use and land cover dynamics of its surroundings.     

Assessment of land use and land cover changes and valuation of carbon stocks in the Sergipe semiarid region,Brazil: 1992–2030

The semiarid region in the state of Sergipe, Brazil, approximately 11,000 km², has experienced high deforestation rates in the last decades, which ultimately contribute to global climatic changes. The valuation of ecosystem services of CO₂ sequestration can support definition of environmental policies to decrease deforestation in that region. This study aimed to assess land use and land cover changes in the Sergipe semiarid region between 1992 and 2017 by applying remotely sensed data and technics; simulate the land use and land cover changes between 2017 and 2030 by applying a cellular automaton model, by assuming current land use trends (Business as Usual – BAU) as a reference scenario, and a more conservative scenario (Protected Forest – PF), in which was assumed an effective enforcement of the Brazilian Forest Code established in 2012; simulate the carbon stocks by 2017 assuming the BAU and PF scenarios by 2030, and estimate the Carbon balance between the 2030 and 2017 scenarios; and estimate the economic valuation of carbon emission and sequestration by using the InVEST software. The results showed that agriculture (cropped lands) was main driver of the landscape changes in the study area, which increased 14% by 2017, a net increase of 1494.45 km². The results showed that the total Carbon emissions would reach 736,900 Mg CO₂-eq by assuming the BAU scenario, which would increase the cost of opportunity up to US$ 17.7 million and a social carbon cost varying between US$ 10.3 and US$ 30.2 million. The restoration of the permanent preservation areas could contribute to increase Carbon sequestration up to 481,900 Mg CO₂-eq by 2030, which is equivalent cost of US$ 11.6 million. The natural landscape in the Sergipe semiarid region was strongly affected by deforestation activities occurred between 1992 and 2017. It requires, therefore, effective actions to support and promote restoration of degraded areas. The forested areas within the Sergipe semiarid region were the most affected type of vegetation because of expansion of agricultural fields soil exposures (Exposed Land). Environmental assessments based on scenarios and economic valuations can provide crucial information to support policy and decision makers to improve strategies for environmental management and conservation.     

Factors affecting farmers’ acceptance of conservation measures—A case study from north-eastern Germany

Intensive forms of agriculture have been proven to cause severe environmental effects, such as soil erosion by water and wind, or the pollution of ground and surface water with nutrients and pesticides contributing to the deterioration of natural habitats and the loss in biodiversity. In order to avoid or mitigate these detrimental environmental effects, a number of conservation measures can be undertaken by farmers. However, the adoption of these measures is highly dependent on the assumed benefits and risks attached as well as the personal perception and attitude of the individual farmer.This paper presents the outcome of a survey conducted in north-eastern Germany aimed at analysing farmers’ acceptance of different conservation measures. Eleven farmers, managing more than 80% (about 13,000 ha) of the agricultural land in the chosen case study region were interviewed. Respondents were asked about their personal experiences with different environmental measures and requested to assess these measures, e.g., regarding costs, time and labour demands, attached risks, or effectiveness. They also ranked these factors in terms of importance for decision making on adoption or rejection of a new measure. The findings show that, despite of the general assumption that farmers’ decisions are mostly driven by economic rationality, costs were not the most important factor. Other factors, like associated risks, effectiveness, or time and effort necessary to implement a certain measure were equally or even more important depending on the specific situation.     

Integrated planning for landscape diversity enhancement,fire hazard mitigation and forest production regulation: A case study in central Portugal

Forest fires and forest biodiversity are related issues of major concern in Mediterranean countries and require an integrated approach to landscape planning. The aim of this study was to develop a GIS approach for regulating forest production while promoting landscape diversity and mitigating fire hazard. A study area located in the centre of Portugal was chosen. The area was primarily occupied by maritime pine and had a high fire hazard, low tree species diversity and an extensive protection area. The classical area control method was used to assist in forest production regulation. Species suitability maps were produced for 21 recommended species for afforestation in the study area. Maritime pine management compartments were defined, and a 50-year harvesting plan was proposed. In each harvested compartment, protection areas were identified for species conversion (e.g., native oaks and/or broadleaves). Afforestation species were proposed according to the species suitability maps produced earlier. Low flammability species that produce high-quality wood, non-wood products and landscape enhancement were preferred. A comparison of the land cover in the study area in 2007 to that anticipated in 2064 via the proposed plan showed that a more fragmented landscape structure could be achieved by introducing 16 species of lower flammability than maritime pine into the study area. This study proved the usefulness of this methodological approach for guiding sustainable changes in homogeneous, unmanaged forest landscapes prone to fire. Further research is needed regarding integrated planning approaches that incorporate environmental, economic and social dimensions (e.g., human desertification of rural areas).     

辽东湾沿海及内陆土地利用生态环境效应对比分析

以位于辽东湾北部的营口市和辽宁省内部的鞍山市为研究区,引用研究区土地利用图形数据,通过将景观斑块分类的方法,对辽东湾沿海及内陆城市的土地利用生态环境效应进行比较分析。结果表明:(1)辽东湾的优势景观为林地和旱地。(2)鞍山市的区域生态环境指数为0.43,营口市的区域生态环境指数为0.51。辽东湾沿海城市较内陆城市生态环境好。     

Perception and use of landscape concepts in the procedure of Environmental Impact Assessment: Case study—Switzerland and Romania

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) defines landscape as “an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”. Because all aspects linked to landscape are evaluated during the Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) procedure, we assessed the Swiss and Romanian experts’ perception and EIA reports regarding the landscape concept. Therefore, we analysed Swiss and Romanian experts’ perception of landscape, we evaluated concepts and methods used in environmental impact reports to assess landscape characteristics and functions, and how the ELC's aim and objectives are reflected by the EIA reports.The Canonical Correspondence Analysis performed to evaluate the experts’ perception of landscape integration in the EIA procedure showed a significant relationship among pattern of answers and experts’ professional background. Moreover, there is a significant difference between Swiss and Romanian expert's perception. Longer experience in the field and a higher level of education indicates higher awareness of landscape characteristics and properties, which demonstrates that alongside with the initial training, there is a need for developing a coherent long-life learning systems having landscape analysis as a focus.The ELC is familiar to nearly 86% of the Romanian Environmental Impact Assessment actors and nearly 29% of the Swiss experts. By contrast, most of the Romanian EIA reports analysed do not employ many concepts of the ELC, while most of the Swiss environmental reports incorporate objectives of landscape protection consistent with the Convention.Our study relies on the comparative investigation of representative case studies of Environmental Impact Assessment reports for industry, local infrastructures, tourism facilities, and wind farm projects, as well on tracking how the European Landscape Convention is reflected by the EIA reports. We found that EIA reports from both countries evaluate the visual landscape, thus, achieving subjective assessment of landscape aesthetics without focusing on social and ecological sub-systems. Quantitative elements of landscape analysis are mostly absent and it is challenging to evaluate whether environmental assessments are consistent among European Landscape Convention countries.To overcome the abstract way of evaluation of project's impact on landscape through EIA procedure, an improved landscape analysis procedure is needed and we propose developing technical guidelines, under the European Landscape Convention umbrella, in order to enhance landscape management.     

Transdisciplinary landscape planning: Does the public have aspirations? Experiences from a case study in Ghent (Flanders,Belgium)

Since the end of the last century, the focus in landscape policy is shifting from traditional top-down perspectives into a bottom-up and integrated approach involving participation of local stakeholders. Keywords in the European Landscape Convention (ELC) include participation and awareness-raising: the public should be involved and their aspirations towards landscape should be assessed. This evolution in policy went with a new paradigm in landscape research: transdisciplinarity. Despite this evolution, literature indicates the necessity of a more general use of methods for public participation in landscape planning to meet the objectives of the Convention. The present paper explores ways to involve ‘the local people’ and to grasp their aspirations with regard to the landscape features of their surroundings. Point of departure is a questionnaire combining questions on landscape preference, environmental worldview and behaviour in the landscape. The questionnaire was distributed in a spatially stratified sample amongst inhabitants of the city of Ghent. The survey was set up without any connection to a concrete operational project that could convince respondents to participate. The response rate was relatively large despite a rather demanding questionnaire. More isolated target groups such as people with lower income, lower education level, and retired people were included, but foreigners, despite being a substantial part of the urban population, did not respond. The respondents appeared to be rather homogeneous as regards environmental worldview and aspirations in the landscape. It appeared that environment and landscape were not clearly distinguished between by the respondents. These results yield some suggestions for transdisciplinary landscape policy. A careful design of the sampling can enhance number and diversity of the respondents. Yet, it is equally important to develop a common language to communicate about landscape so that the question items can be clearly phrased and understood. Aspirations towards landscape should be defined more unambiguously so that they can be assessed alike. Awareness-raising for landscape may help to increase the number of local people that feel addressed when talking about landscape. When public support for landscape policy and management is taken seriously, more factors than only landscape should be taken into consideration.     

典型江南山地丘陵区河岸带土地利用时空变化特征及其政策响应

[目的]以地处山地丘陵区的江西省万年县境内的五条主要河流河岸带为研究对象,通过研究丘陵山区河岸带土地利用时空变化特征,为当地政府开展国土空间规划、土地整治工程等提供科学参考,从而推动区域生态环境质量和社会经济福祉的协同提升。[方法]利用2000年、2009年和2018年3期Landsat遥感影像,借助遥感、地理信息系统技术,基于土地利用变化、景观生态学理论,分析了2000—2018年研究区土地利用时空分异特征。[结果]研究区内新增耕地面积主要来源一直是滩涂和其他用地,新增建设用地面积来源为耕地,新增建设用地主要分布在200～300m分带。景观格局方面,万年县河岸带0～100m段人为扰动程度低,仍然发挥着河岸带生态廊道的作用;100～300m土地利用多样化,是受人为扰动最剧烈的部分。[结论]研究认为,生态保护政策在河岸带土地利用变化上起到了一定作用。通过开垦常年性河流主干道河岸带范围内的滩涂来实现区域内的耕地占补平衡受到严格管控,山地丘陵区的特殊环境特征决定了在该类地区应探索其他的政策响应途径。