Pathways for a future cadastral system: A socio-technical approach

A vast array of trends and innovations, such as drones and person-to-person trust solutions, have been proposed to revolutionize the task of recording land and property rights. There is, however, a gap in current research regarding how to approach systematically the future(s) of cadastral systems. This paper introduces socio-technical transitions theory and multi-level perspective (MLP) framework in particular as a way to structure potential pathways for cadastral systems. The approach emphasizes the role of institutional rules of the game – the regulative, normative and cognitive institutional elements – in socio-technical transition processes. Using the Finnish cadastral system as a case study, we illustrate the approach by forming three alternative transition pathways: (1) a cadastral system under digital transformation, (2) differentiating urban and rural cadastral systems, and (3) a cadastral system facing new data management challenges. After describing each transition pathway with a narrative storyline, we reflect them in light of previous discourses of the cadastral domain. Thereby, the study provides new insights into discussions about the future of cadastral systems and land administration in general.     

Future themes in the operational environment of the Finnish cadastral system

The cadastral systems used in each country and region have developed through the centuries to their current form. We cannot assume that the current situation will remain the same from this point to the future. There are signs in recent studies and development projects throughout the world that those cadastral systems which are traditionally seen as well-functioning also need to be renewed as society changes at a rapid pace.This study is set up to analyze the future needs of a cadastral system and registers related to it in Finland. The objective of the study is to reveal future themes affecting the operational environment of the cadastral system by using research methods provided by futurology. The method used in this study is called environmental scanning and it consists of three phases: collecting events, recognizing phenomena and combining the phenomena as themes.The study analyses 352 literature sources and reveals 14 different future themes in the operational environment of the cadastral system, which are economic pressure, demographic changes, development of technology, transparent society, safety, environmental values, globalization, digitalization, know-how, quality, political change, soft values, public-private partnership and crowd sourcing. The future themes, their possible relations between each other and their significance for the cadastral system are analyzed by using the concepts of megatrends, trends, wild cards, driving forces and weak signals and reflecting the results to research made in the field of land management internationally.The results can be used when renewing a cadastral system, in order to consider possible future themes that may affect the system. Detecting and recognizing the future themes provides an opportunity to react and change the course of action in order to adapt to the future. The results are not only usable in the Finnish context, but can also be applied in other countries⿿ development of their cadastre and as part of environmental scanning.     

Development of process model for Serbian cadastre

Identifying the processes in the cadastre enables understanding the principles on which the cadastre works. Processes in cadastre define the way how the cadastre manages information and what are the prerequisites for the data to be stored in the appropriate data structure. In order to explicitly specify cadastral procedures and workflows to support their automatization, we developed a process model for Serbian cadastre. The main reason for developing the process model is to ensure the framework which will provide possible integration and interoperability with other systems outside traditional cadastral system and between cadastral subsystems themselves. The process model is based on hierarchical decomposition of two basic groups of processes: processes for changing cadastral data and processes for displaying cadastral data. Each group of processes is further decomposed step by step until the workflow of a single process is shown. The developed process model is an abstract model, i.e. it is independent of the implementation. However, in order to instantiate such process model, it is necessary to provide binding of the abstract process model to its underlying implementation. Cadastral registration of spatial units may be beneficial for activities that relay on land administration, such as taxation, spatial planning, obtaining a building permit or legalization of buildings. This relation to the processes under jurisdiction of other organizations justifies the use of cadastral process model and its implementation into SOA environment. Traditionally, cadastral processes include alphanumeric data and 2D spatial data on cadastral maps that contain 2D borders of parcels and buildings. However, recent advancements in 3D technology bring the opportunity to enhance such processes with 3D information. In particular, the aim is to extend current 2D process model to support data maintenance and transactions in the upgrade towards 3D cadastre. Therefore, these 3D data supported workflows are introduced to the process model. For the processes that include 3D information the choice has to be made which specifications will be used and how representations of 3D spatial units will be resolved. In this paper, we first develop an abstract process model of Serbian cadastre. After that, we extend the process model to include 3D information, discuss the options for using the encodings of 3D spatial units (legal spaces) and select buildingSMART openBIM IFC standard for this purpose.     

Initial 3D cadastre registration by cadastral resurvey in the Republic of Croatia

2D Land cadastre on the present territory of the Republic of Croatia has been continuously developed in the last 200 years. Throughout the years, survey methods, needs and purposes of cadastre have changed. This resulted in a variety of cadastral data with different accuracy and completeness. Today, we can collect an enormous amount of data and the need for cadastral data has never been greater. We need to find feasible solutions to make the initial acquisition of 3D cadastral data which would satisfy the needs of stakeholders involved in Land Administration System (LAS).This paper will present a historical background of the cadastral data acquisition which would help to understand circumstances on how this variety of available cadastral data has been produced and the data available nowadays. Based on the historical overview and the overview of the current state, we will upgrade the data model of a LAS used in Croatia to support the implementation of a 3D cadastre. The model will include its static components but also proposed improvements of cadastral resurvey related processes. The Land Administration Domain Model (LADM), which in 2012 became the ISO 19,152 standard, will be used as the formal basis.This paper offers a proposal for cadastral resurvey improvements, better registration of public rights and registration of separate parts of real properties. It will identify and explore critical points and make recommendations to bring Real Property Cadastre closer to a real 3D register.     

Measuring quality performance of cadastral survey and deeds registration work processes

When land parcel boundaries are surveyed for purposes of registration in most southern African countries, the cadastral survey records and diagrams prepared have to be examined and approved by the Surveyor General first before they can be registered in the Deeds Registries. For such records to be approved, their quality must conform to requirements stipulated in relevant acts and regulations. Where regulatory requirements are not met, the records are rejected and returned for corrections and resubmission. From a cross-organizational context, poor quality documents lodged upstream have the effect of congesting examination processes downstream as records are rejected and returned backwards due to quality failure. The paper proposes a quality performance measurement model to analyze quality performance in land administration work processes. The developed model is tested on 2 survey examination and approval sites and 3 deeds registration sites in Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. Based on below expected quality results obtained at one of the sites, a root cause analysis was conducted to establish recurring and underlying causal factors upon which quality improvement strategies can be built on.     

Towards integration of 3D legal and physical objects in cadastral data models

Digital 3D cadastres are often envisaged as the visualisation of 3D property rights (legal objects) and to some extent, their physical counterparts (physical objects) such as buildings and utility networks on, above and under the surface. They facilitate registration and management of 3D properties and reduction of boundary disputes. They also enable a wide variety of applications that in turn identify detailed and integrated 3D legal and physical objects for property management and city space management (3D land use management).Efficient delivery and implementation of these applications require many elements to support a digital 3D cadastre, such as existing 3D property registration laws, appropriate 3D data acquisition methods, 3D spatial database management systems, and functional 3D visualisation platforms. In addition, an appropriate 3D cadastral data model can also play a key role to ensure successful development of the 3D cadastre.A 3D cadastral data model needs to reflect the complexity and interrelations of 3D legal objects and their physical counterparts. Many jurisdictions have defined their own cadastral data models for legal purposes and have neglected the third dimension, integration of physical counterparts and semantic aspects.To address these problems, this paper aims to investigate why existing cadastral data models do not facilitate effective representation and analysis of 3D data, integration of 3D legal objects with their physical counterparts, and semantics. Then, a 3D cadastral data model (3DCDM) is proposed as a solution to improve the current cadastral data models. The data model is developed based on the ISO standards. UML modelling language is used to specify the data model. The results of this research can be used by cadastral data modellers to improve existing or develop new cadastral data models to support the requirements of 3D cadastres.     

Associating land use/cover information with land parcels represented in LADM

LADM design requires the association of external land use/cover information with cadastral land parcels. In addition to model design, related specifications are to be defined in the implementation. Yet, there are many severe obstacles against defining such specifications that are applicable to all cases. In this context, there are many different types of land use/cover classification systems for different purposes in different data quality, scale and content, which are either designed internationally or nationally. FAO Land Cover Classification System (LCCS), CORINE land cover, INSPIRE land use/cover themes, land use capability classification and Land Parcel Identification System (LPIS) are common international examples.In this study, management of spatial land use/cover data in association with cadastral land parcels represented by LADM was studied in a pilot study area in Turkey. In this context, association of spatial information as sub-divisions of land parcels (sub-parcels) was studied. Different land use/cover data sets (four types) were specifically produced for this study with an LPIS like digitization method. For the association, special overlay operations with and without predefined XY tolerances were carried out. Effects of similar yet different data sets, spatial data consistency between the produced sub-parcel data sets and land parcels, and also errors were analyzed based on the results. It is found (1) that the level of detail (base production scale) of external land use/cover data set increases spatial association errors, (2) that using XY tolerances to reduce these errors causes data inconsistency and (3) that direct spatial harmonization of two data set may be a robust solution when it is possible. In this context, in order to contribute to the implementation of LADM in terms of spatial association of land parcels and external land use/cover data, together with these data processing and analysis work, LADM modelling abstraction, availability and data quality issues of external land use/cover data, updating and maintenance issues were also discussed.     

地籍数据库管理模式研究——以徐州市为例

地籍数据库是国土资源基础数据库中重要的一个子库,地籍数据库的有效管理是地籍管理信息系统应用及可持续发展的一个基础保障.在对徐州市地籍数据库管理的实践基础上,总结经验,并探索改进的方法,从地籍管理信息系统权限管理模块、地籍数据库长效变更机制的建立、地籍数据库变更情况统计分析功能以及电子档案等方面对地籍数据库的管理模式进行探讨.     

第二次土地调查数据更新维护对策探讨

第二次土地调查数据是今后国土资源管理最基础的数据,与第一次土地调查数据相比具有数据量大、数据类型复杂、数据格式多样、数字化程度及信息化程度高等特点,采用传统地籍变更办法已不能适应第二次土地调查数据及时动态更新。为促进地籍成果在国土资源管理工作中的应用,保证地籍数据现势性,在传统地籍变更办法的基础上提出城乡一体化的地籍管理信息系统建设、城乡一体化地籍数据更新机制、基于现代测量技术内外业一体化地籍变更模式,与传统变更办法相比大大提高了工作效率。     

加强地籍管理 服务特区建设——深圳市规划国土局罗湖分局地籍管理工作概述

地籍管理是土地管理的基础，如何管好、用好地籍信息，并保持信息的现势性，是国土管理部门的一项重要工作。深圳市规划国土局罗湖分局近年来在此方面作了一些有益的尝试，本文以该分局为例，介绍了其地籍工作的发展概况，总结了多年来的经验和成果，并就如何进一步加强地管理工作，服务特区建设，提出了规划和设想。     

Generic land registry and cadastre data model supporting interoperability based on international standards for Turkey

Managing land information effectively is a key factor in achieving successful land administration and sustainable land development. To manage land, each government has a land policy and administration system. A land administration system (LAS) enables identification, registration and sharing of information about land in compliance with land policies by using information technologies effectively. In this context, land information systems (LISs) are designed to fulfill the requirements related to land, to provide tenure assurance and to manage natural resources sustainably. In Turkey, the necessity of information technologies and geographic information systems (GIS) was recognised by public institutions in the early 1990s. The Land Registry and Cadastre Information System Project (TAKBIS in Turkish) started to manage land registry and cadastre data and processes throughout Turkey. By using a standard framework, the project aimed to digitise land registry and cadastre data and to perform all activities and queries in a digital environment. However, the project did not reach the expected level of success because the data infrastructure was not standardised and did not meet the data requirements of other stakeholders at the national and international level.On the other hand, studies of a new e-government project called Turkish National GIS (TUCBS in Turkish) was initiated to establish a national geographic data infrastructure (GDI) which allows efficient management of geographic data and corresponds to national-level user requirements and Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe (INSPIRE) specifications. In this study, to provide data interoperability among different institutions and meet stakeholder needs, the data model of the Land Registry and Cadastre Data Theme is examined and improved. Within the design process, the ISO 19152 Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) and INSPIRE Cadastral Parcels are examined and applied as the baseline international standards. In addition, main land and land group parcel types in the Turkish cadastral system, the main rights, restrictions and responsibilities related to land in the Turkish registration system, mortgages established over rights, cadastral maps, standard subdivision of two-dimensional (2D) space with special names, surveyed point and monumentation types were explained briefly within the revised land registry and cadastre data model. As a case study, data sets from different sources were transformed to open data sets compatible with the model. This model enables data interoperability in land-related applications. However, models should be kept as simple as possible for effective data transformation and management.     

Development of 3D underground cadastral data model in Korea: Based on land administration domain model

Underground space is being considered as a sustainable development resource, especially in heavily urbanized areas such as Seoul, in Korea. However, regarding 3D underground property, uncertainties and gaps exist between cadastral system and real property registration system. In Korea, cadastral system is able to deal with only 2D surface parcel, on the contrary, real property registration system is able to register and manage legal status of 3D underground properties. The mismatch between these two systems causes various types of problems for underground properties such as a vertical boundary disputes between aboveground and underground ownerships, administrative confusion and dual-compensation problems for new underground construction, reconstruction and haphazard development for underground space due to the lack of systematic registration procedure. In order to overcome these problems, this research proposes a 3D underground cadastral data model, which is associated and integrated with classes in ISO 19152 Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) developed by the Technical Committee 211 of the International Organization for Standardization. The proposed 3D underground cadastral data model comprises two packages: 3D underground parcel package, and 3D underground surveying and mapping package. It would support a better service for land administration by providing reliable and accurate spatial information on 3D underground property. In order to validate the proposed 3D underground cadastral data model, the prototype is developed and implemented in real-world situation for the first time. The proposed 3D underground cadastral data model can register various types of 3D underground properties including architectures such as shopping mall, public walkway, parking lot, and etc., and civil infrastructures such as subway, road, water supply, sewage, common utility tunnel, and etc. The results show that the proposed 3D underground cadastral data model could be applicable for other information system such as land valuation and taxation system, urban planning system, construction and facility management system.     

A structured framework for 3D cadastral data validation − a case study for Victoria,Australia

There are a wide variety of cadastral objects, ranging from simple 2D entities such as a land parcel, to complex 3D objects such as multistory/multi-owned buildings. The complex infrastructures development happening above and below the ground complicates the processes required for defining rights, restrictions and responsibilities in 3D (3D RRRs). Even in the current, predominantly, 3D analogue cadastral system which relies on 2D drawings and representations, defining 3D RRRs is still a complicated task. With the widespread use of 3D geospatial information technologies, it is increasingly becoming easy to realise and interpret a 3D digital cadastre system. As part of the process of transition from the 2D representation of cadastre towards a 3D digital cadastre, not only will 2D representations be replaced with 3D models, but the examination workflow and its principles also need to be able to manage 3D models. Developing principles and validation rules is a critical requirement to guarantee that the diverse cadastral data is trustable and contains enough detail to define the spatial and legal extents of ownership. This paper proposes a structured framework to define validation rules for 3D cadastral models. The paper’s methodology utilises a case study approach where a plan examination process in Victoria, Australia has been analysed to investigate the principles of examining cadastral plans, and further expanded on for validating 3D digital plans. The paper concludes with a discussion on the implications of the proposed 3D validation rules and proposes future research within the topic of 3D cadastral data validation.     

Land administration “best practice” providing the infrastructure for land policy implementation

Land administration systems, and particularly their core cadastral components, are an important infrastructure which facilitates the implementation of land use policies. While most land administration systems traditionally have a primary objective of supporting the operation of land markets, they are increasingly evolving into a broader land information infrastructure which supports economic development, environmental management and social stability in both developed and developing countries. While a great deal of attention is given to land use policies worldwide concerned with such areas as forest management, coastal zone management, environmental sustainability and managing the urban environment, less attention is given to the infrastructures which facilitate the implementation of the associated policies and programmes. Importantly, all these activities rely on some form of land administration infrastructure which permits the complex range of rights, restrictions and responsibilities in land to be identified, mapped and managed as a basis for policy formulation and implementation. As a result, there is an increasing interest in the concept of land administration infrastructures and their core cadastres, in the principles and policies concerned with establishing such infrastructures and in “best practices”. In addressing this need, this paper attempts to explain the evolving concept of land administration infrastructures, the concept of “best practice” and the concept of a land administration “tool box” of principles, policies, laws and technologies which are useful in reforming or re-engineering land administration systems in support of a broader land policy agenda.     

Determining the property ownership on cadastral works in Turkey

The transformation process from state to civil ownership in Turkey was started at the end of the Ottoman Empire and continued until after the formation of Turkish Republic. In this process, in accordance with the Civil Code legislation, most land users who had been using state lands were regarded as owners of those lands. These parcels of real estate were used in various ways and it became necessary to register these properties by using a process called ‘written cadastre’. The initial process was slowed down during World War II but an intensive cadastral program was begun after the war in both urban and rural areas, particularly in 1950s. The cadastre work had two components called technical and legal. The definition of land ownership is the legal foundation of the cadastre. If properties have their titles, land ownership can be defined based on the title; otherwise the ownership can be defined according to statements by experts chosen from local people. However, without title or written evidence, determining the land ownership is more problematic. In this context, this study explains how the ownership of properties, with or without a title, is determined in cadastral work in Turkey.