Does the position in the inter-sectoral knowledge space affect the international competitiveness of industries?

ABSTRACT

This paper empirically investigates how the inter-sectoral knowledge flows affect the international competitiveness of industries, once controlling for both cost and other technological factors. Using patent data on 14 manufacturing industries in 16 OECD countries over the period 1995–2009, we apply a network-based approach to capture the effect of industries' position in the flows of technical knowledge across industries, which we label inter-sectoral knowledge space. We find that (i) centrality and local clustering in the inter-sectoral knowledge space positively affect the export market shares of an industry, (ii) such two effects are rather redundant and (iii) national-level knowledge flows' impacts on international competitiveness are way stronger than international ones. Network measures of position in the knowledge space are found to be more relevant than standard technological indicators such as patent counts. Our results point to the importance of industries being well located in the stream of knowledge flows, rather than being innovative per se, and offer a novel yet robust proxy to measure technological factors affecting trade performances. In addition, we find evidence of geographical boundaries of knowledge flows.     

The network structure of the United States input-output table

Economists triangulate input-output tables in order to find a predominant direction in the interindustrial movement of goods and services. Typically, industries, such as Mining, which are far removed from Final Demand, are situated at one end of the input-output table after rearrangement. At the other end are industries that produce for Final Demand, such as Food and Automobiles. Triangulation yields a linear ordering of industries. Much greater detail than this on the complex directionalities of interindustrial flows is presented here. The maximum flow minimum cut algorithm of network flow theory is employed to identify production and consumption complexes. These are relatively self-contained blocks of industries. In each block, there is one industry — the node of the complex — whose total production (consumption) is greater than the amount produced (consumed) by all members of the collection for (from) non-members. Many production complexes have as their nodes primary industries — ones that would be situated near one end of the table after triangulation — and as their other members Final Demand-oriented industries — ones that would be located near the other end. If there arem industries in an input-output table, ann-member production complex is composed of one nodal industry with total output,P, and (n?1) other industries, which together as then-member complex sell less thanP to the (m?n) other industries. 200 production and 42 consumption complexes of the most highly detailed version of the 1967 U.S. input-output table available are presented.     

Technical change and the measurement of productivity in an input-output model

This paper examines the relationship between technical change and partial and total factor productivity measurement in an n-sector input-output economy. The level of productivity is shown to increase if there is technical change and constant final demands. However, the aggregate level of productivity can fall if there is technical change and if final demands alter. The relationship between technical change and productivity is complicated and counterintuitive results can occur. When the rate of growth of productivity is analyzed, it is found that productivity growth can decline when there is technical change and accelerating technical change, even if final demands are constant. Implications for intranational and international productivity comparisons are discussed.     

ENVIRONMENT-ECONOMIC ACCOUNTING AND INDICATORS OF THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACTIVITIES

In this paper, we define environmental protection (EP) activities in the context of an input-output (I-O) framework. The U.S. I-O table is adjusted to separate inputs purchased by various economic sectors to abate pollution. We use I-O concepts and the I-O matrix adjusted for EP activities to derive a matrix of inputs to EP activities, which is independent of the matrix of inputs to traditional economic activities. This matrix is the basis for deriving measures of the economic importance of EP activities, including the size of EP activities relative to GNP and direct employment and indirect employment attributable to EP activities.     

全球产业集群发展关联网络模型研究

投入产出表数据都以矩阵形式给出,能够描述国家或地区间经济系统中各产品部门间经济技术关联紧密程度,通过直接或间接处理后可作为复杂网络的邻接矩阵,从而形成有向加权网络。依据投入产出表直接消耗系数矩阵,构建了全球产业强关联网络（GISRN）模型,然后,以特定的产品部门为核心产品部门,构建了全球产业集群发展关联网络（GICDN）模型,最后,采用紧密中心性网络特征值,研究了汽车制造业作为核心产品部门在经济系统中的作用及地位。     

An input-output approach to the estimation of employment requirements in Europe

This study reports the results of an attempt to analyse the employment requirements per one million dollars of final demand on the basis of an input-output model, in which the standard technology matrix is partitioned into domestic and import input coefficient matrices for twelve European countries. International comparisons of employment requirements indicate that the labour productivity is higher for high income countries while employment requirements per one million dollars of final demand is less closely associated with the size of the country. Our results demonstrate that the total employment requirements estimated on the basis of the total input coefficients matrix or the domestic coefficients matrix retain the same ordinal ranking of the sectors. For developing countries, where the data are not available for domestic and import coefficients matrix separately, the methodology of estimating employment requirements (per unit of final demand) through total coefficients matrix may be adopted since our experience indicates that ranking of the sectors in terms of labour productivity is not altered between two approaches for twelve European countries.     

Import Contents of Final Expenditures in the United States

This paper applies the Kennedy and Thirlwall method of input-output formulation to study the differential import effect of final expenditures in the U.S. Import contents of consumption, investment, and government expenditures as calculated for 1958, 1963, 1967, 1972, 1977, 1981, and 1984. It also separates import effects of trade expansion, changes in the competitive position, shifts in the level of final demands and changes in the structure of final demands. It is found that the import fractions of the four final expenditures differ substantially, resulting in different income multipliers. [410]     

The Final Incidence of Australian Indirect Taxes

The Australian Bureau of Statistics provides a breakdown by industry of the revenue collected from each of the major indirect taxes in Australia. This information does not show who bears the ultimate burden of indirect tax as each industry may pass on its initial burden to others. Thus, the burden of the tax may be passed on round by round to indirect business purchases and final demand until the total burden of the tax is passed onto the final consumer. Using a method to derive final indirect tax incidence developed from earlier studies, the final incidence of a selection of indirect taxes in Australia is presented. The major innovation is to include the use of margin industries in the initial flows of the input-output matrix ensuring that taxes on inputs to margin services are fully passed forward onto the good or service that the consumer purchases. It is found that many goods and services that are initially exempt from the main indirect taxes, such as the wholesale sales tax, have significant effective tax rates once taxes on inputs to industry are taken into account.     

Examining the global environmental impact of regional consumption activities — Part 1: A technical note on combining input-output and ecological footprint analysis

In recent years there have been a number of attempts to develop a more comprehensive approach to the issue of measuring resource use and/or pollution generation embodied in trade flows, including contributions that combine input-output techniques and Ecological Footprint analysis. In this two-part paper we describe how to enumerate the resource and/or pollution content of inter-regional and inter-national trade flows (Part 1) and we present a literature review of recent methodological and empirical developments (Part 2). It is straightforward in principle to extend the basic input-output approach to capture international trade flows. However, in practice, problems of data availability and compatibility, and of computability of extended input-output matrices, mean that simplifying assumptions are generally applied, but with the implications of these assumptions often not made fully explicit. What appears to be absent from previous applications is an account of the analytical method by which Ecological Footprints should ideally be estimated in an international input-output accounting analysis. This allows an explicit analysis of the problems that prevent the application of the full method and identification of the most appropriate short-cut methods in a transparent way. The objective of this paper is to provide such an account.     

DEFLATION OF INPUT-OUTPUT TABLES FROM THE USER'S POINT OF VIEW: A HEURISTIC APPROACH

This paper considers the problem of deflating an input-output table from the viewpoint of the user. In many practical cases certain margins of this table are readily available in constant prices, whereas the entire table is not. This reduces the problem to estimating the matrix of sectoral intermediate deliveries in constant prices. The traditional approach for this purpose is based on the double deflation method. Since double deflation is sensitive to aggregation, however, it typically does not provide correct answers. Therefore, a heuristic approach is proposed as an alternative. It is based on the biproportional projection method. An empirical evaluation indicates that the heuristic approach clearly performs better.     

无效经济计量和国民经济核算

对现实经济活动中存在的几种无效经济活动的剖析，分析了这些无效经济活动可能对国民经济核算产生的负面影响，并提出总产出和GDP进行当期修正和事后修正的建议，很有现实意义。     

Structural Decomposition Analysis of Physical Flows in the Economy

Many environmental problems can be attributedto the extraction and emissions of physicalsubstances. Increasing our understanding of theeconomic and technological driving forcesbehind these physical flows can contribute tosolving the environmental problems related tothem. The input-output framework is a usefulsetting in which to integrate detailedinformation about economic structure andphysical flows. In this article a specificmethod in input-output analysis is reviewed,namely Structural Decomposition Analysis (SDA).It is based on comparative static analysis,which decomposes historical changes of a policyvariable into determinant effects. SDA has beenapplied, for example, to analyze the demand andtechnological driving forces of energy use,CO₂-emissions and various other pollutantsand resources. This article examines thetheoretical aspects of structuraldecomposition, in particular those concerningphysical flows and environmental issues.Furthermore, the article includes an extensivesurvey of empirical studies.     

Applying input-output analysis to scenario analysis of ecological footprints

Application of input-output analysis to ecological footprints (EFs) is shifting from an ex-post static calculation toward an ex-ante scenario analysis for enhancing the policy relevance of EF analysis. This change in application prompts two issues requiring careful examination: (1) what is measured by Leontief inverses or extended environmental Leontief inverses, and (2) whether a sector's land multiplier (or compositions of land multiplier) can appropriately reflect the effect of delivering one unit of the sector's output to final demand on the required area(s) of production lands used by the sector itself and by other producing sectors whose products are contributed directly and indirectly to its production. The underlying message of these two questions is whether the assumed linear marginal relationship between a sector's output and its intermediate inputs (input-output coefficients)—a critical assumption made by W. Leontief to transform a transactions table from an accounting framework into the input-output model—can be extended to assume that the marginal relationship between a sector's output and the area of production land it uses for generating output is fixed (land-output marginal coefficient equal to average coefficient). By reviewing the literature on input-output analysis and its application to environmental issues and by theoretically and empirically examining the relation between sector output and land appropriation, this study advises against the use of land multipliers or their compositions in the EF scenario analysis.To apply the input-output model to EF scenario analysis for enhancing policy relevance with due attention to the relationship between sector output and land appropriation, this study suggests a two-stage EF calculation procedure. In the first stage, the input-output application estimates only the required raw materials (or generated pollutants) for meeting a given consumption pattern, which is the objective of environmental input-output analysis; in the second stage, the estimated amount of raw materials or pollutants is converted into land/water area, and a choice of conversion methods is suggested according to the research questions and the availability of conversion methods and required data.     

投入产出分析在制药企业生态工程中的应用

本文运用投入产出理论与方法,对工业企业生态系统的投入产出进行了分析,界定了工业企业生态工程的投入产出,给出与投入产出有关概念的量化定义。工业企业生态工程作为一个投入产出系统,不仅仅是传统意义上的投入产出,它不仅包括经济投入与经济产出,还包括生态投入与生态产出。在工业企业生态系统中,各部门、各分厂及车间的生产过程不是孤立和封闭的,而是通过物质流、能量流、信息流和价值流相互联系的,并支撑其投入产出结构,根据这一原理,我们构建了工业企业生态系统基于物质流的投入产出表。在调查分析的基础上,我们结合RH制药企业构建了生态投入产出模型,填制了其投入产出表,测算了其消耗系数,为企业进一步推进生态工程提供依据。     

A MICROCONSISTENT EQUILIBRIUM DATA SET FOR CANADA FOR USE IN TAX POLICY ANALYSIS

In this paper we describe a micro consistent data set for Canada for 1972, assembled with general equilibrium tax policy analysis in mind. We stress the methodology used and in a number of tables report its main features.
In the data set the separate detail contained in input-output transactions tables, national accounts, household income and expenditure data, taxation statistics, foreign trade statistics, flow of funds and other sources is adjusted for mutual consistency. The final result is a micro consistent data set in which demands equal supplies for all products, zero profit conditions hold for industries and all agents' demands satisfy their budget constraints.
The motivation for data assembly is the currently widely used practice of calibrating "empirical" general equilibrium models so as to exactly reproduce a base year data observation as an equilibrium model solution. This procedure enables empirically based models to evaluate counterfactual equilibria in a way which corresponds to comparative static analysis in theoretical literature.
More detail on the data set is available on request in appendices deleted from the published version of this paper due to space constraints.     

Principal Features of Building Social Accounts Matrix and Improving Statistical Database for Eco-countries

With common borders of the population, total area, and GDP （PPP-based） of Economic Cooperation Organization （ECO） member states are estimated as 416 million persons, 7.9 million m2, and US$2.7 trillion respectively （2010 data）. Although heterogeneous in the extent, there is economic development, overall, with serious energy and transport-transit relations among countries that is reflected in growing trade turnover year-by-year. However, there are still rather unused resources and capacity in such areas of cooperation among countries as exchange of energy, transport services, agricultural and industrial goods, use of opportunities for tourism, promoting investment and innovation processes and other areas. Certainly, maximum and optimal use of these resources calls for availability of analytical means capable of accounting for relations both within member states and among them. The implementation of computable general equilibrium （CGE） modeling in each member state would thus be of great significance in resolution of these problems both in terms of accounting for input-output linkages within the countries as well as enabling impact of main trading partners and goods and services among countries. The analysis carried out indicates that there are a number of problems in application of CGE model in most of the member states. As such, input-output tables are not compiled in some countries, while in others despite the fact that these tables are compiled, there are no attempts to build the model, yet in other countries, even if the CGE model is implemented, there are difficulties in taking into account the real results in the face of serious problems related to improving national accounts system database. Summarizing these problems, it is possible to conclude that to ensure the application of a CGE model,there is a great need to work out procedures of compilation of a social accounts matrix （SAM） that lies on the basis of this model, for which the relevant statistics of a member state must be improved     

THE SOCIAL ACCOUNTS FROM A CONSUMER'S POINT OF VIEW

After a short introduction, the first part of this paper (section 3 through 9) provides an outline of the revisions proposed to the System of National Accounts (SNA) of the United Nations which are now under discussion. These proposals were considered by an expert group at the end of 1964 and were accepted by the Statistical Commission of the United Nations in 1965 as the basis for further work on the extension and revision of the SNA. The aim of the revision is to provide a fully integrated system of accounts and balance sheets in which input-output, flows-of-funds and sector balance sheets are incorporated in a generalised accounting framework. Whereas the real side of the economy has been studied analytically in many countries (input-output analysis, demand analysis and so on) much less experience is available on modelling the financial side of the economy, apart from econometric work on saving behaviour, which is fairly widespread. Accordingly, the second part of the paper (sections 10 through 14) contains a discussion of financial model-building in which a number of possibilities are explored. The final topic discussed (section 15) is demographic accounting, by which is meant a framework for recording and analysing human, as opposed to economic, flows and stocks. The development of such a system arose out of the emphasis placed by the expert group on the integration of demographic and economic information.     

大规模水利投资对中国经济的拉动效应——基于水利社会核算矩阵的分析

通过对最新的2007年中国投入产出表进行合理的拆分与合并,并结合其他数据编制的水利社会核算矩阵可以为研究水利投资与国民经济的互动提供大量的信息,利用水利社会核算矩阵乘数模型可以考察大规模水利投资对中国经济的拉动效应。实证分析结果表明,水利投资将对国民经济尤其是农业部门产生较大的拉动效应;不同水利部门的投资增加对国民经济的具体拉动效应存在较大的差别,了解这些差别有助于水利投资结构的优化;水利投资对我国GDP拉动的平均乘数大约为1.3;基于水利投资的结构分解,测算得出4000亿元的水利投资将会带来GDP增长4925亿元。     

社会水资源利用的投入产出研究

传统的水资源投入产出表的计量主体多样,单位不一,不仅难以直观体现水资源的投入产出关系,也不利于统计计算。文章提出水资源投入产出表一种新的编制思路,建立其中的投入产出模型,并在此基础上设计了社会水资源利用结构、产业水资源生产力、产业水环境冲击影响三种社会水资源利用评价指标。     

复杂网络视角下汽车产业集群发展投入产出结构研究

不同国家或地区经济系统中各产品部门之间的经济技术关联程度能够用投入产出表数据进行描述,且数据均能以矩阵形式呈现,通过直接或间接处理后可以作为复杂网络的邻接矩阵,进而形成一类有向加权网络。根据国家间投入产出数据构建了全球强关系网络,然后进一步选取特定产品部门为核心产品部门构建了全球产业集群发展关联网络,并采用加权集聚系数研究核心产品部门在经济系统中的作用和地位。