Poverty,food intake,and malnutrition: implications for food security in developing countries

The relation between household income, food intake, and nutritional status in less developed countries is examined, and a framework that explicitly relates household behavior patterns with public policy options designed to improve the nutritional status of the rural and urban poor is presented. For rural areas, nutritional and health status depends largely upon the levels of private inputs provided by households. In turn, level depends upon income. Consequently, increasing income may also lead to improvements in nutrition and health status. Regrettably, post-World War II development strategy in most developing countries has undervalued the potential contribution of agricultural development to economic development. Domestic economic policies practiced thus far have most probably had serious negative effects upon the nutrition and heal status of the poorest segments of developing nations. Economic development policy reform is therefore called for as a measure to alleviate rural poverty in developing countries.     

Agricultural intensification: food insecurity to income security in a mid-hill watershed of Nepal

A shift from cultivating cereal crops towards vegetables and other cash crops has evolved through the process of agricultural intensification in the hills of the Himalayan region. Agricultural intensification has attracted the attention of researchers in Nepalese agriculture due to its potential impacts on the environment and socio-economic status of farmers. Nevertheless, socio-economic drivers of agricultural intensification are as yet poorly studied in the Himalayan region. Farmers' perceptions of the effects of agricultural intensification on society and the environment are analysed in the Ansikhola watershed of Kavre district, Nepal. Before the onset of agricultural intensification, food sufficiency was the primary measure of the economic condition of farmers. However, in recent years agricultural income and profits have become key socio-economic measures. This study reveals that intensive agricultural practices shifted need-based cereal farming to market-oriented vegetable-based production systems, thereby improving socio-economic conditions for farmers. Positive changes in wealth and social status, migration from rural to urban areas, and shift in social division of labour are other important impacts.     

Land administration for food security: A research synthesis

Food security remains an ongoing global concern: the challenge of ensuring food availability, access, and utility for all, at all times, is yet to be met. The body of literature relating to food security is growing immensely. Land administrators are part of the discourse. Their arguments are spread disparately across academic and professional publications. The distinction between scientific work and political rhetoric is increasingly blurry: the role of land administration needs to be more concisely articulated. This paper provides a new synthesis on the relationships between land administration and food security. It undertakes a review of land administration literature relating to food security. It aims at crystallizing understandings of how land administration supports, or fails to support, food security at a conceptual level, and also the strategic and operational levels of land administration systems. The relationship between land administration and food security appears to be conceptually agreed upon; however, at operational levels the link is less evident. Conceptually, land administration is argued to deliver (and sometimes not deliver) secure land tenure, support for implementation of agricultural policies, access to credit, less litigation, easier land dealings, land taxation, land inventories, and land transaction controls. This enables (or undermines) subsistence farming, development of local agricultural sectors and markets, credit to access to non-local food markets, farm subsidization, more efficient land utilization, fairer international investments, and national food planning strategies. In general, the examined literature tends to focus on problem identification rather than system design. Additionally, the large amount of positive viewpoints need better validation in many cases. Future work needs to concentrate on examining the utility of land information and geospatial tools for food security, extracting lessons from the land administration systems of developed contexts, and improving the links at an operational level.     

Agricultural policies and food systems: Priorities for indicator development

Existing indicators of agricultural protection and support were developed primarily to gauge the market and welfare effects of government policies. They have shed light on a wider range of impacts through their use in economic models and empirical analysis. The rising scale of support to agriculture globally, and continued reliance on market distorting policy instruments, make this work as important as ever. Deeper investments are nonetheless needed to address heightened concerns about the spill-over impacts of agricultural policies on the performance of food systems, in particular with respect to food security and nutrition, rural livelihoods, resource use and the environment, and global emissions. A first area for development is improved measures of policies to correct agriculture's externalities. A priority here is to develop a carbon tax equivalent of sectoral mitigation efforts. A second area is to provide a clearer delineation of government spending on private versus public goods. This would make a valuable contribution to a ‘repurposing’ agenda that seeks to identify how agricultural budgets can be spent more effectively, as well as the scope for transferring resources to wider social priorities, such as public health and climate action.     

The microeconomics of food security

This article develops a dynamic microeconomic model of food security under uncertainty, with special focus on the relationships between food demand, nutrition and human survival. It investigates the influence of entitlements on malnutrition, hunger and starvation under uncertainty. It develops useful insights on the links between food security and a number of policy instruments commonly used in dealing with malnutrition and starvation.     

perspectives on modern biotechnology and developing countries' food and agriculture

freedom to choose: perspectives on modern biotechnology and developing countries' food and agriculture Perspectives differ between rich and poor countries and people on the use of modern biotechnology in food and agriculture. Europeans generally support the use of this technology in medicine, but not to address hunger. Unlike Europeans, poor people in developing countries spend 50 to 80 percent of their income on food and depend on agriculture for their living, so agricultural productivity gains that lower food prices are critical. Policy makers, scientists, and farmers in developing countries generally support appropriate use of agricultural biotechnology. They are more concerned about food availability and better nutrition than food safety or environmental issues, although they do insist upon sound biosafety regulations. Bans on importation of genetically modified (GM) foods in Europe could harm agricultural growth and poverty alleviation in developing countries. If developed countries limit molecular biology research to health, developing countries will not receive needed support to apply the technology to food and agriculture. Policy action is required to assure adequate public investment in agricultural research to benefit poor farmers and consumers in developing countries. Intellectual property rights regimes must maintain farmers' rights to replant seed. Trade policies should not discriminate against developing countries that choose to commercialize GM crops. Developing countries and their citizens must be empowered to make their own choices based on informed debate and their own risk‐benefit calculations. la liberte de choisir: points de vue sur l'utilisation des biotechnologies modernes dans l'alimentation et l'agriculture des pays en voie de developpement L'utilisation des biotechnologies modernes dans l'alimentation et l'agriculture fait l'objet de points de vue différents selon que les pays et les personnes concernées sont riches ou pauvres. Les Européens sont généralement favorables à l'utilisation de cette technologie en médecine, mais pas pour aborder le problème de la faim. Contrairement aux Européens, les pauvres des pays en voie de développement dépensent 50 à 80 pour cent de leur revenu en nourriture et dépendent de l'agriculture pour leur survie, si bien que les gains de productivité agricole permettant d'abaisser les prix alimentaires sont d'une grande importance pour eux. Les hommes politiques, les scientifiques et les agriculteurs des pays en voie de développement sont génerálement partisans d'un usage approprié des biotechnologies agricoles. Ils se soucient plus de la disponibilité en nourriture et d'une meilleure nutrition que des problèmes d'environnement et de sécurité des produits alimentaires, bien qu'ils mettent l'accent sur la nécessité de réglementations justes en matiére d'hygiène alimentaire. Les interdictions d'aliments génétiquement modifiés en Europe pourraient nuire à la croissance agricole et a la diminution de la pauvreté dans les pays en voie de développement. Si les pays développés limitent à la santé la recherche en biologie moléculaire, les pays en voie de développement ne recevront pas le soutien dont ils ont besoin pour appliquer cette technologie à l'alimentation et à l'agriculture. Il convient de mettre en place des actions pour garantir des investissements publics suffisants en recherche agricole au bénéfice des agriculteurs et des consommateurs pauvres des pays en voie de développement. Les régimes relatifs aux droits de propriété intellectuelle doivent maintenir les droits des agriculteurs à replanter leurs semences. Les politiques commerciales ne devraient pas faire de discrimination contre les pays en voie de développement qui choisissent de commercialiser des récoltes génétiquement modifiées. Les pays en voie de développement et leurs citoyens devraient être habilités à faire leurs propres choix sur la base de débats informés et de leurs propres calculs risques avantages. Die Freiheit zu wählen: Sichtweisen in Bezug auf moderne Biotechnologie und auf Nahrungsmittel und Landwirtschaft in Entwicklungslandern Im Hinblick auf die Verwendung moderner Biotechnologie im Nahrungsmittelbereich und in der Landwirtschaft ergeben sich für reiche und arme Länder und Bevölkerungen unterschiedliche Sichtweisen. Die Europäer befürworten im Allgemeinen, diese Technologie im Bereich der Medizin einzusetzen; nicht aber, um den Hunger zu bekämpfen. Im Gegensatz zu den Europäern gibt die arme Bevölkerung in Entwicklungsländern 50 bis 80 Prozent ihres Einkommens für Nahrungsmittel aus und ist zur Sicherung ihres Lebensunterhalts auf die Landwirtschaft angewiesen, so dass Produktivitatszuwächse in der Landwirtschaft, die zu sinkenden Nahrungsmittelpreisen führen, entscheidend sind, Im Allgemeinen befürworten Entscheidungsträger, Wissenschaftler und Landwirte in Entwicklungsländern eine angemessene Verwendung von Biotechnologie in der Landwirtschaft. Sie sind mehr an der Verfügbarkeit von Nahrungsmitteln und an einer verbesserten Ernährungslage interessiert als an der Nahrungsmittelsicherheit oder am Umweltschutz, obgleich sie auf klaren Verordnungen zur Sicherheit von Biotechnologie bestehen. Europäische Einfuhrverbote von genetisch modifizierten Nahrungsmitteln könnten das landwirtschaftliche Wachstum und die Armutsbekämpfung in den Entwicklungsländern beeinträchtigen. Wenn die Industrieländer die Forschung auf dem Gebiet der Molekularbiologie jedoch auf den Bereich der Medizin beschränken, werden die Entwicklungsländer nicht die benötigte Unterstützung erhalten, diese Technologie im Nahrungsmittelbereich und in der Landwirtschaft umzusetzen. Politisches Handeln ist erforderlich, um ausreichende staatliche Investitionen in die landwirtschaftliche Forschung sicherzustellen, damit arme Landwirte und Verbraucher in Entwicklungsländern davon profitieren können. Die Regelungen zur Wahrung des geistigen Eigentums müssen die Rechte der Landwirte auf Nachbau erhalten. Handelspolitische Maßnahmen sollten nicht jene Entwicklungsländer diskriminieren, welche sich zur kommerzieflen Nutzung von genetisch modifizierten Feldfrüchten entschieden haben. Die Entwicklungsländer und deren Einwohner müssen das Recht erhalten, auf der Grundlage fundierter Debatten und individueller Risiko‐Nutzen‐Abwägungen ihre eigenen Entscheidungen zu treffen.     

Trade,policy, and food security

Food insecurity is extensive throughout the world and hunger and malnutrition are expected to remain serious humanitarian and political concerns, both in the short term and for the foreseeable future, particularly in low income developing countries where many rural and urban households are both income and asset poor. In those countries, domestic agricultural production is expected to be especially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change over the next 30 years. Thus international markets for staple agricultural commodities, which have become increasingly important as sources of nutrition for both developing and developed countries over the past 60 years, are likely to become even more important in the future. Free trade policies allow countries to exploit their comparative advantages in economic activity, increasing average per capita incomes, longer term growth rates and a country's capacity to fund social safety nets for the poor. However, many countries abandoned those policies in favor of domestic protections in their efforts to mitigate the effects of short run food crises. The policy challenge is therefore to resolve the tension between optimal long run policies and short run initiatives to address food security concerns.     

Matching food security and malnutrition indicators: evidence from Southeast Asia

This article aims to understand the relation between household food security and individual undernutrition. The multitude of indicators available raises the question which aspects of food security are captured by the respective indicator. In our analysis, we first assess the relation between the dimensions of food security and households’ socioeconomic characteristics. Second, we examine whether household indicators detect undernutrition in children. Finally, we investigate the role of individual‐specific characteristics for child undernutrition. The analysis is based on a novel data set of 1,200 rural households from Cambodia and Lao PDR, which combines household‐ and individual‐level data. We capture household food security by three indicators including a dietary diversity score, a consumption behavior measure, and an experiential measure. Individual nutrition status is measured via anthropometric indicators. Our results show that different household‐level indicators capture fundamentally different aspects of food security. Moreover, household food security fails to explain stunting for children under five. Dietary diversity indicators, however, explain underweight in children to a small extent. We call for more research on intrahousehold allocation of food and stress the implications of our research for the design and targeting of food and nutrition support programs.     

Trading-off: Rural food security and land rights in South Africa

In light of the high percentage of poor people in rural areas of South Africa, the post-apartheid government has, among other things, prioritized food security in their policy processes. However, these food security policies stop short of workable strategies for the most difficult situations, particularly in the former reserves (Bantustans). A case study of the Eastern Cape Province reveals that food security managed by government agencies experience difficulties at implementation stage due to land issues. At the heart of the problem is the poor understanding of rural people's land use plans and multiple livelihood strategies. The paper concludes that food security projects in the former Bantustans will continue to suffer unless food security policies are efficiently integrated to those of land reform.     

Prospects for food security in the 21st Century: with special emphasis on Africa

Food security for the world in 2025 is possible and probable if the right set of things are done, starting now. But the task will not be easy. It is both a technology and a political/economic challenge. The challenge for sub-Saharan Africa is even greater. While other regions improved per capita food availability over the last 30 years, Africa's availability declined. But food security is about more than supply. It is also about access which means income generating employment is critical. Meeting future requirements in Africa and the world will require sustainable intensification of complex production systems, appropriate national and international policies and continued investments in agricultural research. Without these conditions and increased employment intensive growth, prospects for the future are less bright.     

Food aid,food policy and the Uruguay round: implications for Bangladesh

The relationship between the effects of food aid and those of the completion of the Uruguay Round of the GATT are studied in this paper, focusing upon the food aid recipient countries, and taking Bangladesh as an illustrative example. It is argued that, among other factors, the magnitudes of these effects depend crucially on the policy environment within the food aid recipient country itself, particularly the government's policy with respect to commercial food imports. It is shown that when the quantity of Bangladesh's commercial food imports is controlled by the government, the benefits derived from food aid are smaller than when these imports are liberalised. Likewise, the negative effects that the Uruguay Round may be expected to have on Bangladesh will also he larger if commercial food imports are subject to quantitative controls than if they are liberalised. The effects the Uruguay Round will have on Bangladesh will also depend on the way food aid donors respond to the Round. If donors reduce the volumes of food aid, either because of reduced food surpluses resulting from lower agricultural subsidies, or in response to increased international food prices resulting from the Round, the losses incurred by Bangladesh will be magnified. But these effects will also depend heavily on whether Bangladesh itself participates in the liberalisations that are central to the Round itself. If it were to participate fully, the negative effects that the Uruguay Round would otherwise have on Bangladesh may be entirely offset by the gains Bangladesh would derive from its own liberalisation.     

Floods,food security,and coping strategies: Evidence from Afghanistan

In this paper, we assess the long‐term effect of floods on food security (as measured by calorie and micronutrient consumption) by applying an instrumental variable approach to data from the Afghanistan National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment survey. To identify the determinants of this effect, we also estimate how floods affect per capita yearly household income and poverty status. We find that exposure to flooding during a 12‐month period decreased daily calorie consumption by approximately 60 kcal while increasing the probability of iron, vitamin A, and vitamin C deficiency by 11, 12, and 27 percentage points, respectively. Controlling for price shocks and income only marginally reduces this flood effect on food security, suggesting that impaired livelihoods (rather than price hikes) are its primary driver. We further determine that exposure to this natural disaster decreases income by about 3% and makes flood‐affected households about 3 percentage points more likely to be poor. Lastly, we show that experience of floods is strongly and significantly associated with lower diet quality and quantity, and with engaging in consumption smoothing coping strategies, such as buying food on credit and taking loans. These findings underscore the serious direct impact of floods on both diet and effective behavioral responses to such shocks while emphasizing the need for targeted micronutrient supplementation in disaster relief and food aid measures even after the period of natural disaster emergency.     

The impact of integrated livestock disease management for food security in Togo

In sub-Saharan Africa, livestock is one of the key channels through which most households meet their food security needs. However, diseases such as the African Animal Trypanosomosis (AAT) constrain productivity. Using data from 445 randomly sampled small-scale cattle farmers, this paper investigates the role of integrated livestock disease control on household food security. Using a novel approach to link different food security measures to cattle productivity, the paper identifies the channels of impact at the household level. Methodologically, the paper estimated the propensity score matching algorithm to net out the effect of adoption. The results show that households who adopt RDU have record livestock productivity and higher consumption per capita expenditures. They tend to be more food secure, experience lower seasonal food supply fluctuations and experience a lower probability of falling below the food poverty line.     

Least-cost cheap-food policies: some implications of international food aid

Many low-income countries pursue cheap-food policies in which consumers pay subsidized prices for bread, rice and other staples. This paper addresses the issue of why different governments select different food subsidy policies, using multiple instruments rather than a simple across-the-board subsidy to provide consumers with access to cheap food. It examines the optimal structure of cheap-food policies in the context of a partial equilibrium model in which the country may he large in trade, and is able to combine import subsidies or tariffs, and output taxes or subsidies, to transfer income to consumers through the market. The model allows for a marginal opportunity cost of government revenues greater than one dollar. In addition, in the model, food aid from overseas may be either given away to the consumer, or given to the government for subsequent sale in the domestic market. The results indicate that only by happenstance will a country choose to use a pure consumption subsidy or a pure import subsidy to transfer income to consumers. In addition, an increase in international food aid does not necessarily lead the government to reduce producer and consumer prices for a commodity.     

A text message away: ICTs as a tool to improve food security

The growing use of ICTs around the world, particularly cellular phone technology, provides a significant development opportunity. Under certain situations, ICTs can improve rural households’ agricultural production, farm profitability, job opportunities, adoption of healthier practices, and risk management. All these effects have the potential to increase wellbeing and food security in rural areas of developing countries. Several challenges to effectively scaling up the use of ICTs for development remain, however. Taking advantage of the opportunities provided by ICTs depends on increased connectivity of marginalized population groups, the content and usefulness of the information provided through ICTs, and the capacity of households in rural areas to understand and act on the information that they receive. We need innovative ways to bring together the public and private sectors to ensure that the three Cs (connectivity, content, and capacity) are addressed as a whole.