Challenges confronting the ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative: Social networks and cross-cultural adjustment in CPEC projects

The China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is the flagship program of China’s ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative, created to boost economic cooperation between China and Pakistan. The aims of economic efficiency and enhancement of national interests are widely acknowledged in the literature. Yet, critical issues of developing the capabilities of cross-cultural management in general, and cross-cultural adjustment through cross-cultural understanding and network building in particular, have been largely overlooked. The current research investigates the challenges confronting cross-cultural adjustment among the Chinese and Pakistani employees participating in the CPEC projects. Through a rigorous analysis, we highlight the importance of acculturation experience, cross-cultural networking (i.e. heterophilic), networking behaviour (i.e. guanxi vs. hawala), and factors influencing cross-cultural adjustment, which would enhance the overall performance of the CPEC projects. Our aim is to contribute to the understanding of contextual and condition-driven networking behaviour for cross-cultural adjustment, particularly the need for cross-cultural networking. We contend that organisations in cross-cultural/cross-border projects should encourage cross-cultural mentoring and facilitate cross-national networks to increase the efficacy of such collaborative projects.     

The influence of personality on active and passive use of social networking sites

Managers are more and more interested in social networking sites because they provide opportunities for strengthening relationships with customers as well as site content and service. Using social networking sites effectively, however, depends on understanding both the psychological attributes and social interactions of participants. This paper addresses these topics by presenting the results of a two‐study inquiry into the importance of two personality traits (consumer innovativeness and expressiveness) to active and passive use of social networks among Italian consumers. In Study 1 ( n = 753) it was found that innovativeness is positively related to active and passive use. Study 2 ( n = 277) revealed that self‐identity expressiveness and social identity expressiveness positively influence only active use. These results suggest that managers need to distinguish bet‐ween, and differentially encourage, joining and browsing such sites on the one hand and actively contributing to them on the other. Managers can also enhance the impact of their social networking sites by taking into account social and self‐identity expressiveness to increase affiliation and market share and by encouraging consumers to use these sites actively. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The Development of Female Global Managers: The Role of Mentoring and Networking

This paper explores the role of mentoring and networking in the career development of global female managers. The paper is based on data collected from interviews with 50 senior female managers. The voices of the female managers illustrate some of the difficulties associated with informal organisational processes, in particular mentoring and networking, which hinder their career development. The findings confirm that female managers can miss out on global appointments because they lack mentors, role models, sponsorship, or access to appropriate networks – all of which are commonly available to their male counterparts. The interviewees suggest that men, as the dominant group, may want to maintain their dominance by excluding women from the informal interactions of mentoring and networking. The findings further suggest that if females had more access to networks and mentors they could be socialised in both the formal and informal norms of the organisation and gain career advantages from these. The managers reveal that they encounter additional barriers in ‹a man’s world’ and remind us that there is still much to be changed.     

Networking responses to different levels of institutional void: A comparison of internationalizing SMEs in Egypt and the UK

This paper reports a comparative qualitative study of how decision-makers in internationalizing SMEs respond to relevant institutions in their domestic environment through networking activity. Twenty SMEs are compared respectively from a developing economy (Egypt) and a developed economy (UK). The two countries contrast both in the effectiveness of their institutional support for SMEs and in their cultural norms towards network relationships. Substantial differences are found between the two national samples in SME decision makers’ networking behaviour in response to specific institutional conditions. The links between institutional conditions, national cultural norms and SME networking responses are explicated in a new theoretical model.     

Networking and growth of young technology-intensive ventures in China

More often than not, new ventures lack established products, known technologies, longstanding customer relations, experienced managerial teams, sufficient capital, and strong reputations. Almost by definition, small, new firms lack the resources of many larger, established firms. The task of an infant firm, and a measure of its success, is to make a transition from being resource weak to being resource strong.How can resources that are critical for profitable growth be acquired for the resource weak new venture? Researchers have found that entrepreneurs can gain access to valuable resources and they can seek to achieve competitive advantage through “networking activities.” Forming and utilizing available relationships with external organizations can allow entrepreneurs to build credibility, gain advice, financing, and customer access, build a positive image and obtain resources at below-market prices, and obtain channel access, information, and innovations. Business relationships with other organizations allow an entrepreneur to achieve desired business results through “asset parsimony.”A favorable view toward networking for new ventures leaves a number of unanswered questions, however. Relevant research questions might include, who should the entrepreneur seek as a business partner? Are all inter-organizational relationships equal, or are some types more valuable to new ventures than other relationships? Do firms relying on high levels of networking activities actually outperform firms that less actively seek resources through external organizational relationships?The present study provides a specific understanding of the concept of networking for entrepreneurs. We propose that networking can be understood in terms of “range,” the number of external relationships to obtain resources, and of “intensity,” the frequency of contact of and amount of resource obtained from these relationships. This research project evaluates the range and intensity of networking among high-growth and low-growth entrepreneurial ventures.Extensive interviewing with managers of six young technology-oriented firms in the People's Republic of China (PRC) affirmed the importance of entrepreneurial networking. Managers in the three high-growth firms reported greater range and intensity of business networking than did managers of three low-growth firms, matched by industry and age. Moreover, the relationship between networking activities and growth transcended the stage of firm development.Where networking range and intensity are deemed important in the growth process, new venture success may call for entrepreneurs to reach out deliberately to external organizations to capture needed resources. To a certain extent, such networking activities run counter to important entrepreneurial motivations of independence and autonomy. The concept of networking, and the results of this study, imply that entrepreneurs need to combine the spirit of independence with the reality of resource dependence, and they need to balance personal autonomy with strategic business relationships.This study also contributes to the understanding of entrepreneurship in our increasingly global economy, particularly in the PRC. Business relationships between the United States and the PRC have been expanding rapidly in the last decade. Many foreign businesses seek license agreements, joint venture partners, equity participation, or channel relationships with young ventures in that country. Do the same rules of networking apply in the PRC as the literature suggests apply in the United States? New ventures in this study were found to engage in processes of networking activities consistent with those in the West. Although networking activities may have different cultural roots, firm success appeared influenced by the same principles of networking.     

The evolving role of organisational and personal networks in international market venturing

In a study of 1304 Australian manufacturing industry SMEs, we investigate the relationships among networking (i.e., inter-personal and inter-organisational networks), international market venturing (i.e., export intensity), and family ownership. We find evidence that (1) inter-personal networking and inter-organisational networking positively influence SME international market venturing, but this relationship is contingent on a time lag effect, and (2) family ownership negatively moderates the effect of inter-organisational networking on international market venturing. Implications for managerial practice and public policy are discussed.     

Entrepreneurial orientation and networking: Some Indian evidence

Research evidence indicates that entrepreneurs who exhibit a need for unique, path-breaking accomplishments (pioneering) and transforming the status quo (innovative) are quite different from other entrepreneurs. This is called the PI motive, which is found to be a constellation of policy commitments to pioneering novel outputs, technological sophistication and so on. The nature of these policy commitments underlines the need for and pattern of interpersonal networking behavior demonstrated by PI entrepreneurs. There is evidence to show that such networking is a means of raising required resources and thus plays an important role in the process of enterprise creation and growth. There are both active and latent networks, and those belonging to inner and outer circles.This paper discusses the findings of a study undertaken to see whether or not PI entrepreneurs showed greater networking behavior, and if so, to look at the nature of these networks and the purposes for which they were used. Sixty-seven cases of small-scale entrepreneurs published in two Indian business journals constituted the data. In order to know the pioneering innovative orientation of entrepreneurs covered, independent professionals rated the cases on the presence or absence of ten types of innovations including the Schumpeterian innovations.It was found that entrepreneurs with high PI scores resorted to networking to raise critical resources more than those with low PI scores. High PI entrepreneurs did not merely adopt the suggestions or ideas acquired from their networks but synthesized them in a way that resulted in substantial learning. Networks, especially with inner circle contacts, provided hard resources such as capital and technology. Family and friends formed the major sources of resources.The search for excellence of PI entrepreneurs goes beyond their firms into the large communities with which they deal. For them the goals/visions of their business do not seem to be limited to considerations of survival or even money making; they would like to be change agents and bring about transformations in the industry and economy. Because of their emphasis on new products, markets, technology and so on, PI entrepreneurs showed behaviors that build capabilities to manage uncertainty and risk and build credibility to attract favorable attention and support. Towards this end, they tended to scan the environment constantly, collaborated with customers and consultants, and focused on enhancing professionalism in organizations. Similarly, their goals to influence groups related to their business required them to provide leadership in addressing industry/community issues, and the development of a distinct identity. It is shown that the business and non-business goals of PI entrepreneurs support each other—the higher networking behavior is a common denominator underlying both the personal and business agenda of the PI entrepreneur.     

Gender,Social Networks,and Entrepreneurial Outcomes in Tanzania

This article presents results of a study that investigates egocentric network differences between female and male entrepreneurs and their entrepreneurial outcomes in Tanzania. Based on a random sample of 272 micro-, small, and medium-size enterprises, the study reveals that female and male entrepreneurs have diverse networks. However, when compared to their male counterparts, female entrepreneurs' strong ties included more kin members. No significant gender difference in the composition of weaker ties was observed, suggesting gender differences in the choice of individuals with whom to have strong ties but not with whom to have weak ties. A significant gender difference in entrepreneurial outcomes at both start up and at the time of research was found, suggesting an antecedent networking behavior influence on performance.     

行星表面有人探索高速无线网络体系架构及关键技术

针对行星表面有人探索任务对高速无线通信的需求，提出了一种基于异构组网思想的网络体系架构，并对关键技术进行了分析和设计。该架构采用“三网两体制”的设计思路，将整个网络分为高速传输网、多媒体接入网、覆盖扩展网三个组成部分，三层网络分别完成高速骨干传输、多节点多业务接入、覆盖范围灵活改变的功能。根据三个网络不同的节点处理能力和传输需要，设计了高速传输体制、灵活接入体制两种传输体制，及基于无线多跳的覆盖扩展技术、多子网通信切换技术、多体制融合技术等关键技术。该网络架构具有裁剪灵活、协议开销小、支持业务类型多等特点。     

Internationalization of Small Family Firms: The Influence of Family from a Socioemotional Wealth Perspective

We explore the factors influencing the internationalization of small family firms. Based on interviews with six family firms in Singapore, we highlight the importance of (1) family harmony, (2) trust in external relationships, (3) social and business networks, and (4) organizational resources and capabilities in the internationalization process. We show how the socioemotional wealth factors of trust and harmony affect networking and resources, which in turn affect internationalization. We find that initial internationalization through exports is enabled through trust in family networks, but the typical family characteristics of a desire to maintain family harmony and distrust of outsiders have a negative impact on network creation and resource development, which constrains the extent to which the firm internationalizes beyond exporting. In order to move from the first stage (exports/similar markets) to the second stage (joint ventures/different markets) of internationalization, less emphasis on trust and family harmony accompanied by more emphasis on building external networks and resources may be necessary. We propose a new model of internationalization of family firms based on our findings. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Critical Success Factors for Manufacturing Networks as Perceived by Network Coordinators

While networking among small and medium-sized manufacturing firms (SMEs) is a growing phenomenon, there has been little empirical study of the factors that lead to the success of these networks. This study identifies the following eight success factors for manufacturing networks of SMEs, which are ranked by perceived degree of importance to the success of the network: (1) participant character; (2) chief executive officer (CEO) support; (3) confidence; (4) dedication; (5) capabilities; (6) external relationships; (7) intermediary; and (8) information technology. Four success factors were perceived to be significantly more important in joint production and marketing networks compared to joint learning and resource sharing networks: (1) participant character; (2) confidence; (3) external relationships; and (4) information technology.     

Globally networked: Intraorganizational boundary spanning in the global organization

Multinational corporations (MNCs) need to sense, source, and mobilize knowledge when and where it arises, whether at home, or elsewhere in the world. For this reason, MNCs benefit from employee networks of relationships that span across intraorganizational barriers, allowing for the efficient mobilization of knowledge across boundaries. Yet, which organizational members are more likely to be able to develop these boundary spanning networks? We leverage a unique data set from a large multinational corporation to empirically test a comprehensive model that captures the effect of an employee’s mandate, expertise, and behavioral orientations on her likelihood to span intraorganizational boundaries that manifest themselves in the form of hierarchies, intra-functional domains, and geographic territories. We find that the employees that are more likely to be boundary spanners are those having mandates with a global impact, high levels of expertise, and a collaborative orientation in their networking behaviors. In addition, we find that these effects are stronger for those employees that have large formal workflow networks.     

测控信息网组网技术探讨

介绍了测控信息网组网的需求与发展趋势，以及其网络体系结构，分析了国外测控信息网的网络技术。对建立测控信息网所需的传输协议、网络管理模式、网络管理协议等进行了初步探讨。     

The new wave of regional innovation networks: Analysis,characteristics and strategy

Today, the number one priority for competitive advantage is innovation. A new approach to regional business development has been pioneered in Europe and the U.S.A. This involves building a regional innovation infrastructure. Learning through networking has proven to be a successful approach in some of Europe's more dynamic regional economics such as Baden-Württemberg and Emilia-Romagna. This involves maximising the complete range of regional innovation assets. The state of Pennsylvania and other older industry centres are showing that such an approach is transferable from Europe to the U.S.A. The paper assesses knowledge-transfer at the regional level and outlines the key elements for successful regional innovation networking practices. The major finding(s) are that business networking is an effective way of increasing company turnover; that not-for-profit organizations are excellent for setting up networks because they are trusted, and that innovation networks are perhaps the most difficult, thought-requiring but important of the types of business network conceivable.     

Networks,Internationalization & Policy

This is the introduction to this special issue of Small Business Economics, dedicated to networks, opportunity, internationalization and policy. As the drivers of globalization are removing barriers, which traditionally segmented the competitive environments of small and large firms, firms of all sizes are joining international networks. Former competitors are now working together and this symbiosis is enhancing competitiveness. Consequently, networking is giving rise to unprecedented opportunities, facilitating internationalization. Simultaneously, new realities are creating the need for new policies.     

The Moderating Role of Trust in SME Owner/Managers' Decision-Making about Collaboration

This paper analyzes the impact of trust and trust agents on small to medium-sized enterprises' (SMEs) ability to derive benefits from it. The findings suggest that trust is a significant factor moderating the way SME owners/managers perceive the potential benefits of networks. These findings support earlier research that posited that networking provides an avenue for SME owners/managers to learn about potential business opportunities. However, Australian owner/managers that belong to networks do not demonstrate behavior and practices typical of either explorative or exploitative networks. Instead, the findings suggest that in addition to the typical networks, a third type of network should be added to the literature—embryo-explorative networks. Such networks describe SMEs owners/managers who attend network meetings and report on what they learn about new opportunities from the networks; however, they do not tend to engage in typical collaborative activities (such as joint marketing venture) as described in the networking literature. Embryo-explorative networks are defined as those that have yet to develop into the explorative networks—probably because there has been insufficient time to build trusting relationships required to foster collaborative ventures that involve some risks.     

The Practice of Networking: An Ethical Approach

Focusing on the virtue-ethics tradition, this article analyzes the practice of networking within the business context. First, it distinguishes three types of networking: utilitarian, emotional, and virtuous. Virtuous networking does not exclude utilitarian and emotional networking, but these latter forms should be practiced with reciprocity. It is argued that virtuous networking requires (1) acting with good faith, sharing honest goals, and participating in licit activities; (2) sharing information, knowledge, and resources with reciprocity and even with gratuity; (3) serving with justice in asymmetrical power relationships; and (4) exercising a positive ethical influence within the network. Specific forms of unethical behavior in the practice of networking include (1) bad faith or abuse of trust, (2) opportunism, (3) abuse and misuse of power, (4) network cronyism, (5) networking as disguised bribery, and (6) cooperating in the wrongdoing of other actors of the network. The article concludes with some remarks about the role of ethics in social networks.     

Examining the link between salesperson networking behaviors,job satisfaction,and organizational commitment: Does gender matter?

Sales professionals are embedded in an array of social interactions through their networking behaviors, yet the literature's understanding of these effects on job-based attitudes is relatively limited. Further, research suggests that men and women, not only network differently, but also often benefit in different ways from networking. This study examines the extent to which gender moderates the relationships between three forms of salesperson networking behaviors, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. The data from a survey of 179 salespeople indicates that networking behaviors are related to job satisfaction and commitment in sales. However, the relationships vary for male and female salespeople. When analyzed separately, job satisfaction relates positively to professional networking for women, while job satisfaction relates positively to peer networking for men. In addition, peer networking directly relates to organizational commitment for women, rather than mediated by job satisfaction.     

Internationalisation Processes,Networking and Local Embeddedness in Technology-Intensive Small Firms

The paper argues that technology-intensive small firms often need to internationalise their activities, and especially sales, at a very early stage of their development because of the limited and global nature of the technological market niche which they have been set up to exploit. From a survey of 100 such firms in the Cambridge and Oxford regions, it demonstrates that many technology-based smaller firms are engaged in a range of international networks and internationalisation processes, including internationalisation of markets, research collaboration, labour recruitment, ownership and facilities location. Technology-intensive firms reporting high levels of internationalisation also differ significantly from those which are more nationally-oriented, for example in terms of size, age, research intensity, university links, and innovativeness. There are also differences with respect to recent growth rates. Finally, the paper demonstrates that far from substituting international for local networks, technology-intensive firms which have achieved high levels of internationalisation in fact also exhibit above-average levels of local networking with respect to research collaboration and intra-industry links. Internationalisation therefore appears to be grounded or embedded in successful local networking and research and technology collaboration.     

Modeling the relationship between networking and firm performance

Network theory suggests that successful business ownership might depend on the ability of owners to gain access to resources not under their control in a cost effective way through networking. To date, however, there has been little empirical support for this proposition, particularly for established firms. The results of this study, based on a large longitudinal database, indicate a significant positive relationship between networking (particularly with formal networks such as external accountants) and both firm survival and, to a lesser extent, growth, but not ROE. Further, network intensity is found to be associated with survival, and network range with growth.