Macroeconomic effects of terms of trade fluctuations in commodity exporting advanced economies

The paper examines the impact of world commodity prices on national output and trade balances in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Norway, OECD economies that, unlike other advanced economies, are heavily dependent on commodity exports. Contrary to Dutch disease theory based on real exchange rate adjustment, it highlights the relative price effects of terms of trade (ToT) changes on gross domestic product and net exports with reference to the experience of this unique set of OECD countries. The econometric analysis verifies key predictions of this alternative perspective that ToT fluctuations should (i) have no significant short-run impact on GDP and that (ii) due to relative price effects a strong positive relationship between the ToT and net exports is unlikely.     

Adjustment costs and factor demands in Canadian manufacturing industries

This paper examines whether there is a relationship between the commodity terms of trade (the price of primary commodities relative to the price of manufactures) and the net barter terms of trade of 42 Sub-Saharan African countries. For most countries, there is little evidence of a stable, long-run relationship between the two terms of trade series. Accordingly, the practice in the literature of proxying for movements in any given country's terms of trade by using an aggregate index of relative commodity prices is inappropriate, and is likely to engender misleading policy conclusions.     

Exchange rate and long run equilibrium in transition economies

The purpose of this paper is to calculate pruchasing power parity rates and the real exchange rate using several methods of calculation to estimate long-run equilibrium real exchange rates in transition economies, mainly in Eastern European countries considered in transition, such as Poland. The authors calculate different measures of exchange rate misalignment (absolute and relative deviations from long-run equilibrium). Each measure is calculated using different price indices, which include consumer price indices, GDP deflactor, and unit labor cost. The expected values of these variables are used. To calculate the long-run equilibrium, different methods such as an error correction equation and a forward-looking model are utilized, and again, the expected values of the variables are introduced along with new variables. The estimation of the long-run cointegration equation of the equilibrium real exchange rate and the corresponding dynamic error correction specification strongly corroborates the model and produced fairly consistent results across the countries under study. Using appropriated proxies, the estimated long run equations were used to derive indices of the equilibrium real exchange rate.     

Testing a theoretical model of mortgage demand on UK data

This study explores whether the long-run purchasing power parity (PPP) hypothesis holds for selected real exchange rates from Turkish economy during the period 1982M1–2003M12. In addition to conventional unit root tests, five different unit root test procedures have been applied including efficient point-optimal tests, extended M tests and GLS-detrended variants of DF tests, to four monthly real exchange rate series defined in terms of both producer and consumer price indices. The countries analysed are the USA, the UK, Germany and Italy which are major trade partners of Turkey. Mixed evidence is found for the long-run PPP hypothesis when real exchange rate is defined in terms of German DM and Italian Lira. However, the empirical analysis reveals that the PPP hypothesis holds strongly in the long-run for the UK£ and US$ based real exchange rates series using either PPI or CPI. In corroboration with other studies in the literature, the bias correlated half-life estimates suggest relatively faster speeds of adjustment supporting the view that the deviations from the PPP rate dissipate rather quickly for relatively high inflation countries.     

Capital mobility,openness, and saving-investment relationship in Asia

The main objective of this paper is to investigate the relationship between openness to trade and saving-investment behaviour in Asia during the period 1990–2006. We use this relationship to examine whether those Asian countries that are more open to trade and enjoy less trade barriers have also higher degree of capital mobility. Cluster analysis is used to classify the countries into different groups according to the share of trade in their gross domestic products and their average tariff rates. The goal is to place the countries that are similar to each other in terms of their trade policy in one group. We apply the Generalized Least Square (GLS) technique to a set of balanced panel error correction models to estimate the short- and long-run relationship between saving and investment. The estimation results indicate that there exist long-run equilibrium relationships between domestic saving and investment in all groups regardless of their degree of trade openness. Moreover, contrary to Amirkhalkhali and Dar (2007) for the case of OECD, we find out that more openness in terms of trade policy is associated with higher degree of capital mobility for the case of Asian countries. One policy implication of this result for the Asian economies is that trade openness can be used as a strategy to attract capital from abroad. Our findings also confirm the prediction of new open economy macroeconomic models regarding the short- and long-run behaviour of current account.     

Do central banks respond to exchange rate movements? Some new evidence from structural estimation

This paper investigates the impact of exchange rate movements on the conduct of monetary policy in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. We develop and estimate a structural general equilibrium model, in which monetary policy is represented as a simple rule and exchange rate pass‐through is incomplete due to the presence of local currency pricing and distribution services. We find that the Bank of Canada, the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the Bank of England have not adjusted interest rates in response to exchange rate movements since the adoption of inflation targeting, while our model selection results for Australia are less clear.     

Why does monetary policy respond to the real exchange rate in small open economies? A Bayesian perspective

To estimate how monetary policy works in small open economies, we build a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model that incorporates the basic features of these economies. We conclude that the monetary policy in a group of small open economies (including Australia, Chile, Colombia, Peru, and New Zealand) is rather similar to that observed in closed economies. Our results also indicate, however, that there are strong differences due to the shocks from the international financial markets (mainly risk premium shocks). These differences explain most of the variability of the real exchange rate, which has important reallocation effects in the short run. Our results are consistent with an old idea from the Mundell–Fleming model: namely, a real depreciation to confront a risk premium shock is expansive or procyclical, in contradiction to the predictions of the balance sheet effect, the J curve effect, and the introduction of working capital into RBC models. In line with this last result, we have strong evidence that only in one of the five countries analyzed in this study does not intervene the real exchange rate, the case of New Zealand.     

实际外部财富、劳动生产率与人民币实际汇率——基于跨期一般均衡理论的实证研究

本文首先构建关于实际外部财富、劳动生产率、贸易条件与实际汇率关系的跨时一般均衡理论模型,然后利用1981-2009年相关时间序列数据,检验中国实际外部财富、贸易条件以及国内外两部门劳动生产率对人民币实际汇率的影响。结果表明,从长期看,中国实际外部财富的急剧攀升会引发人民币实际汇率快速升值;中国贸易部门相对非贸易部门劳动生产率上升会促使人民币实际汇率升值,而国外贸易部门相对非贸易部门的劳动生产率提高则会降低人民币实际汇率,净效应表现为劳动生产率并不能解释20世纪80年代以来人民币实际汇率的长期波动;中国贸易条件对人民币实际汇率的影响不明显。短期内,中国实际外部财富对人民币实际汇率的作用关系与长期一致。根据上述结论,本文提出了保持人民币实际汇率相对稳定的政策建议。     

The dynamic impact of bilateral trade linkages on stock market correlations of Australia and China

This article aims to examine the long-run equilibrium relationship between bilateral trade linkages and stock market correlations of Australia and China using quarterly data from 1993 to 2015. Further, this study explores the impact of trade intensity on stock market correlations using OLS, Dynamic OLS (DOLS) and Fully Modified OLS (FMOLS) models. The empirical results confirm that there is a significant long-run relationship among the variables. In addition, our results, based on OLS, DOLS and FMOLS, show that increasing trade intensity between Australia and China has a significant and positive impact on their stock market correlations. The Global Financial Crisis also contributed for their stock market interdependence. Our results therefore suggest that the bilateral trade relations between Australia and China have brought their stock markets together over time. The findings of this study offer significant policy and practical implications. The policymakers need to be aware of the economic changes in those countries as they will immediately reflect on their stock market performance and relationship. Similarly, the global investors need to be aware of the fact that the diversification opportunities between Australia and China have considerably declined over time as their markets became more interdependent in the recent past.     

Flexible exchange rates as shock absorbers

In this paper we analyze empirically the effect of terms of trade shocks on economic performance under alternative exchange rate regimes. We are particularly interested in investigating whether terms of trade disturbances have a smaller effect on growth in countries with a flexible exchange rate arrangement. We also analyze whether negative and positive terms of trade shocks have asymmetric effects on growth, and whether the magnitude of these asymmetries depends on the exchange rate regime. We find evidence suggesting that terms of trade shocks get amplified in countries that have more rigid exchange rate regimes. We also find evidence of an asymmetric response to terms of trade shocks: the output response is larger for negative than for positive shocks. Finally, we find evidence supporting the view that, after controlling for other factors, countries with more flexible exchange rate regimes grow faster than countries with fixed exchange rates.     

Does the exchange rate matter to bilateral trade between Korea and Japan? Evidence from commodity trade data

This study examines the short- and long-run effects of exchange rate changes on trade flows in the context of disaggregating industry data of bilateral trade between Korea and Japan. For this purpose, an autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach is used. Results show that Korea's exports and imports are relatively sensitive to the bilateral exchange rate in the short-run, but less responsive in the long-run. It is also found that income in the two countries has significant impacts on the bilateral trade flows in both the short- and long-run. Finally, exchange rate uncertainty and Japanese FDI to Korea are found to have little impacts on Korea's trade with Japan in the short- and long-run.     

Long-run determinants of the Irish real exchange rate

Smooth adjustment to real exchange rate shifts is one of the major challenges facing the Irish economy under EMU. Rather than assume purchasing power parity, the long-run real exchange rate is modelled as time-varying, being determined by relative output levels, the terms of trade and the net foreign asset position. It is shown that these factors account for a large proportion of the long-run movement in the Irish real exchange rate.     

The impact of monetary policy on financial markets in small open economies: More or less effective during the global financial crisis?

This paper estimates the impact of monetary policy on exchange rates and stock prices of eight small open economies: Australia, Canada, the Republic of Korea, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. On average across these countries in the full sample, a one percentage point surprise rise in official interest rates leads to a 1% appreciation of the exchange rate and a 0.5–1% fall in stock prices, with somewhat stronger effects in OECD countries than non-OECD countries (though differences are sometimes not significant). We find little robust evidence of a change in the effect of monetary policy surprises during the recent financial crisis.     

An empirical examination of long-run purchasing power parity using cointegration techniques

This paper presents an empirical analysis of long-run purchasing power parity (PPP) for five major exchange rates using recently developed econometric techniques on the cointegration of economic time series. Our empirical results are extremely unfavourable to the PPP hypothesis as a long-run equilibrium condition, even with an allowance made for measurement error and/or tranportation costs. In particular, we are unable to reject the hypothesis of non-cointegration of the exchange rate and relative prices for any of the countries concerned. Far from finding a stable, long-run proportionality between exchange rates and relative prices, our results therefore suggest that they tend to drift apart without bound.     

出口退税、贸易盈余和外汇储备的一般均衡分析与中国的实证

本文构建了一个简单的大国开放经济一般均衡模型,从理论上探讨了外汇储备从贸易盈余时的短期均衡到贸易平衡时的长期均衡的动态变化过程,并在此基础上量化分析了降低出口退税率对长期均衡时的外汇储备的影响。研究表明,降低出口退税率在短期内对减少贸易盈余和控制外汇储备增量有一定的帮助,但长期来看则与出口产品的价格弹性密切相关,只有降低那些价格弹性较大的产品的出口退税率,才能够有效地减少长期均衡时的外汇储备,否则可能产生适得其反的效果。中国数据的实证研究支持了理论模型的结论。由于中国的出口产品总体缺乏价格弹性,因此,近年来实行的一系列出口退税政策改革在长期内使国家外汇储备出现了一定程度的增加。本文最后提出了相关的政策建议。     

Testing J-curve hypothesis and analysing the effect of exchange rate volatility on the balance of trade in India

This study estimates the balance of trade model similar to Rose (1991) to test the J-curve hypothesis and analyse the effect of conditional exchange rate volatility on the balance of trade in India. The model is estimated on quarterly data from 1975:02 to 1996:03 and the exchange rate is measured alternatively in terms of the trade and export weighted real effective exchange rate. The model variables are tied together in a long run equilibrium relationship. The study does not find any evidence for the presence of the J-curve effect in the balance of trade. The study finds the presence of weak ARCH but strong GARCH effects in the exchange rate series. But this exchange rate volatility does not play any significant role in affecting the balance of trade in India.Jel classification: F31, F32, F40, F41I am grateful to Dr. Glenn Otto of the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia for his valuable comments and incisive suggestions which helped to improve the paper substantially. I am also gratefull to an anonymous Referee and Editor, Baldev Raj, of the Journal for giving very useful suggestions. However, I am solely responsible for any error and omission that may remain in the paper. The views expressed in the article are my personal views and not of the institution Iam associated with.First version received: October 2000/Final version received: October 2002     

Purchasing power parity and country characteristics: Evidence from panel data tests

We examine long-run purchasing power parity (PPP) using panel data methods to test for unit roots in US dollar real exchange rates of 84 countries. We find stronger evidence of PPP in countries more open to trade, closer to the United States, with lower inflation and moderate nominal exchange rate volatility, and with similar economic growth rates as the United States. We also show that PPP holds for panels of European and Latin American countries, but not for African and Asian countries. Our findings demonstrate that country characteristics can help explain both adherence to and deviations from long-run PPP.     

Trade and Investment Linkages and Stock Market Long‐Run Relationship

This paper aims to examine whether the intensity of trade and investment linkages among the countries matter for their stock market long‐run relationship. To achieve this, we classify Australia's bilateral trade and investment partners into major, medium and minor. Empirical findings of an asymmetric generalised dynamic conditional correlation generalised autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity model show that correlations are time varying and increased significantly during the global financial crisis (GFC). Results of multivariate cointegration test confirm the long‐run equilibrium relationship between the stock markets of Australia and its major partners in the pre‐GFC and during GFC. Based on the full‐sample results, it indicates that the GFC has segmented the stock markets from the long‐run equilibrium relationship. Granger non‐causality test results on full sample show that Australian stock market causes only the New Zealand market while the USA, the UK, Germany, Canada, Switzerland and Italy drives the Australian market. Our results therefore suggest that the intensity of bilateral trade and investment linkages among the countries matter for their stock markets' long‐term relationship.     

Central bank intervention,the current account,and exchange rates

This paper seeks to explain exchange rate and current account or net foreign assets behavior under central bank foreign exchange rate intervention. To analyze central bank intervention we use the current account-net foreign assets identity, as well as the long-run monetary exchange rate model. The intervention function is one where exchange rate deviations from equilibrium are governed by nonlinear adjustments. That is, exchange rate deviations from their long-run equilibrium are such that the degree of reversion towards equilibrium increases with the size of the deviation from equilibrium. In this type of nonlinear function exchange rates determine the current account, and the current account in turn determines exchange rates. This iterative duality contrasts with several portfolio balance models where exchange rates are a function of trade, but trade is not a function of exchange rates. This two way causality is slightly more complex, but is also analytically richer than assuming that exchange rates change solely in a one step process as targeted by central banks. Managing exchange rates is posited to be an active iterative feedback process where intervention changes the current account, which may in turn make further intervention necessary.     

The long-run effects of the real exchange rate on employment and wages in Canadian manufacturing

ABSTRACT

The literature on real exchange rate effects on the labour market is dominated by short-run analysis showing that there is heterogeneity in the responses of firms or industries to a real exchange rate shock. Analysing data on Canadian manufacturing industries, I conclude that there is a common long-run equilibrium across all manufacturing industries controlling for their openness to trade after varying adjustments to a real exchange rate shock have taken place. This conclusion is important from the perspective of policy making because it helps to form expectations about the effects of a real exchange rate movement on the labour market. The results suggest that real appreciation leads to economically significant reductions in employment in manufacturing in the long run. Real wages decrease in industries that are highly engaged in international trade and somewhat increase in industries that are relatively closed to international trade. Both employment and real wages converge quickly to the long-run equilibrium.