Demand for cigarettes in Turkey: an application of count data models

Household cigarette demand in Turkey is examined using the zero-inflated negative binomial model to account for a large portion of households not reporting cigarette smoking or purchase and estimated using the data from the national household survey implemented in 2003. Data were divided into two main groups: families with and without teenagers. Results identify relevant household head and household characteristics needed to develop effective public policy to prevent the decision to begin to smoke and to reduce cigarette purchase to lower the future growth of government healthcare expenditures. Specifically, healthcare expenditure share, income, and cigarette-price elasticities are relevant in lowering cigarette purchases. The calculated price elasticities for cigarette demand falls within the range determined by studies conducted for developed countries including the member states of the European Union. An estimate of the effect of an increase in the excise tax lowering demand is provided.     

Advertising and Restrictions in the Cigarette Industry: Evidence of State-by-State Variation

Many studies estimate the relationship between advertising and consumption in the cigarette industry, with emphasis directed toward the national demand for cigarettes. However, in light of evidence that cigarette producers price discriminate across U.S. states, coupled with possible affects of advertising on market power, this article takes a less aggregate perspective by addressing the role of cigarette advertising and restrictions at the state level. The results show that although advertising has little effect on demand, it generally increases market power in the cigarette industry (particularly during periods of heightened advertising restrictions). Furthermore, the relationship between advertising, demand, and supply vary across states. (JEL L13 , L66 , I18 )     

Cigarette demand and tax policy for race groups in South Africa

This paper calculates cigarette demand for race groups in South Africa. Elasticities are the most important information a tax policy analyst can have. Elasticities determine how the tax base will change with a change in the tax rate and thus how government revenues will respond to the tax. Elasticities also determine the excess burden that consumers will bear as a result of the tax. As such, own price, crossprice, and expenditure elasticities are calculated along with government revenue maximizing tax rates, and total and excess burdens. Parametric and semiparametric estimation techniques are used and compared. Results show that a tax on cigarettes will discourage nonsmokers from starting to smoke and mainly raise revenue from current smokers. Furthermore, it is found that consumption behaviours between groups are different implying different government revenue maximizing tax rates for each group affecting the distribution of income.     

Factors Affecting Cigarette Demand

This paper addresses the impact of smoking restrictions in workplaces and educational establishments, cigarette price measures and various psychosocial indicators on cigarette demand, controlling for demographic and socio-economic factors. The data used for the analysis are collected via questionnaire that was administered in personal-in home interviews. A two-part model of cigarette demand [Cragg, J. G. “Some Statistical Models for Limited Dependent Variables with Application to the Demand for Durable Goods,” Econometrica, 39, 5, 1971, pp. 829–44.] is estimated. According to the estimations, cigarette price measures do not influence cigarette demand. On the contrary, smoking restrictions in workplaces and educational establishments and most of the psychosocial variables are found to affect cigarette demand considerably.     

湖南省农村家庭与全国农村家庭消费结构比较分析

从人均消费支出、平均消费倾向与边际消费倾向、消费需求弹性等方面比较分析湖南省与全国农村家庭消费水平与消费结构,结果显示,湖南省农村家庭人均生活消费支出高于全国农村家庭消费水平;二者的消费需求项目的侧重点基本一致,基本需求项目的边际消费倾向最大,而较高层次的需求项目还处于较低水平。湖南农村家庭的消费更受到了其收入增长水平缓慢的制约。建议开辟农村家庭创收渠道、改善农村消费环境、完善农村各项保障制度等以优化湖南省农村家庭消费结构。     

我国居民消费需求与社会保障水平的动态分析——基于中国19902009年经验数据

文章利用我国1990-2009年居民人均消费支出PCS和社会保障支出PPS数据，采用协整检验和误差修正模型等计量技术，检验社会保障水平对于居民消费的影响。在计量分析的基础上，认为拉动居民消费需求的关键在于完善社会保障制度、实现国民收入水平的持续稳定增加，增强国民的消费信心；同时还要扩宽社会保障基金的筹资渠道，加快重大民生工程建设，改善人们的消费预期，引导和促进居民扩大消费需求。     

The US National Tobacco Settlement: the effects of advertising and price changes on cigarette consumption

This paper provides an econometric analysis of the effects of cigarette price and advertising changes stemming from the United States Tobacco Settlement of 1998. This is done by estimation of a demand function for cigarettes, based on data from both before and after the Settlement. The model is estimated using monthly time series data for the period 1990–2000. Results show that the increase in cigarette prices stemming from the Settlement reduced per capita cigarette consumption in the USA by 8.3%. However, the cigarette companies also increased advertising in the years immediately preceding and following the Settlement. This study estimates that this increased advertising partially offsets the effects of the higher prices, increasing cigarette consumption by 2.7 to 4.7%, and hence blunting the effects of the price increase by 33–57%.     

CIGARETTE TAXATION AND DEMAND: AN EMPIRICAL MODEL

This paper evaluates the impact of taxation on cigarette consumption, using a recursive model that includes a retail price equation and a dynamic demand equation. The analysis is based on panel data for 11 western states over the period 1967–1990. Results indicate that cigarette consumption is price-sensitive, with a demand elasticity of –0.40 in the short run and –0.48 in the long run. A tax increase, such as that imposed in California in January 1989, can have a strong effect of reducing cigarette consumption by between 11.2 percent in the short run and 13.4 percent in the long run. These results support the theory of rational addiction and the hypothesis that, as a part of their oligopoly behavior, the tobacco companies often do raise end-market prices by more than the amount of the increase in tax rates .     

我国教育市场垄断性的实证研究

近年来,有关教育消费的争论不断,包括教育产业化、高收费、以及低水平的政府教育支出等等。各种观点似乎都有道理,但缺乏实证的支持。文章构造了一个完全垄断的教育市场模型。实证结果表明,我国教育市场属于完全垄断。导致高收费的主要原因不是低水平的政府教育支出而是市场的完全垄断。     

国民收入、价格水平与 省级政府公共文化支出

国民收入的增加、价格水平的上升会促使省级地方政府加大公共文化支出占比吗？本文利用2004-2010年间30个省份的面板数据为基础进行了实证检验,研究结果表明：（1）国民收入与公共文化支出占比之间为显著的负相关关系,说明逐步“富裕”起来的地方政府并没有加大对公共文化事业的投入;（2）价格水平的上涨是迫使地方政府增加文化支出的主要原因,即“成本病”是存在的。因此,政府层面的制度改革还需要进一步完善,这应当引起决策者的关注。     

Demand for ground transportation fuels in 10 Asian countries: An application of the autoregressive distributed lag bounds testing approach

This study applies the recently developed autoregressive distributed lag bounds testing approach to investigate demands for gasoline and diesel in the ground transportation sectors of 10 Asian countries from 1983 to 2013. Results reveal an inelastic fuel demand with respect to price, except in Hong Kong. This relation implies that the government is unable to limit fuel consumption by controlling price. Moreover, fuel demand with respect to income is generally greater than price elasticity. In other words, if the growth of the national income is faster than that of fuel price, fuel consumption will continually increase. Long‐term income elasticity is greater than unity in half of the examined countries. The demand for transportation fuel in these countries is expected to grow at a rate faster than the growth of GDP over a wide range of economies in Asia, with the implication that the concern regarding the scarcity of fossil fuel is not misplaced.     

政府支出与居民消费——一个基于跨期替代模型的中国经验分析

政府支出的增加之所以能够引致居民消费的增长，是由于政府支出具有乘数效应。本文通过建立一个居民消费的跨期替代模型，分析了中国的政府支出与居民消费之间的关系，认为在短期内，中国政府可能通过增加政府支出的方式增加总需求，但在长期均衡时政府支出完全挤占了消费支出。     

Heterogeneity and the evaluation of efficiency: the case of Italian universities

This study investigates the quarterly relationship between the quantity of cigarettes sold, real disposable income per capita, and the relative price level of cigarettes in Canada. Careful attention is paid to the nonstationarity of the data and the dynamic specification of the model. It is concluded that cigarette demand is extremely insensitive to price and income changes. This is evidence of the large consumer surplus smokers enjoy and the large revenue increasing potential of a cigarette tax increase policy, as opposed to cigarette bans.     

广告支出与消费增长:基于1981年～2009年时间序列数据的经验研究

理论分析显示广告支出与消费增长相互依存,广告可以通过诱导消费者的潜在需求从而刺激消费,消费增长也会促使企业增加广告支出。笔者在多变量VAR模型的基础上,采用中国1981年～2009年度数据,运用协整检验发现:广告支出、城市居民消费支出和农村居民消费支出之间存在某种长期均衡关系,广告支出是城市和农村消费增长的格兰杰原因。脉冲响应和方差分解表明,广告对消费的刺激效应不断下降,呈现出长期均衡的趋势。从宏观整体的视角来看,企业广告长期投放应保持理性,广告支出应维持在相对稳定合理的状态。     

The Effects of Macroeconomic Policy with a Disparity in Price Elasticity Between Private‐ and Public‐ Sector Demands

We introduce a disparity in price elasticity between government demand and consumption demand into a simple money‐in‐the‐utility‐function model. This extension demonstrates that the effect of fiscal policies on production may be positive, negative, or neutral depending on the disparity in price elasticity between sectors. Because the effect of an increase in nominal money supply with constant nominal government expenditure is the opposite to that of a fiscal policy, a fiscal policy financed by seigniorage can have positive, negative, or no effects depending on parameter values. Moreover, the effect of simultaneous implementation of expansionary–contractionary policies depends on how they are combined.     

Fixing income and price targets for the poor in india

The poverty line, generally defined as the minimum income level necessary to enable a person to consume a normatively stipulated basket of goods, is widely used to set income target for the poor. But mere provision of this target income will not lead the poor to adopt the normative consumption pattern. In order to induce them to do so, it is necessary to set suitable price targets along with the income target. An attempt has been made here to fix these targets assuming that the consumers' demand pattern can be represented by the linear expenditure system. A numerical exercise has been worked out for rural India.     

THE DEMAND FOR CIGARETTES IN TAIWAN: DOMESTIC VERSUS IMPORTED CIGARETTES

This paper uses annual time series data from Taiwan to empirically estimate the demand for cigarettes, in consideration of the import liberation of foreign cigarettes and of antismoking campaigns. The results indicate that the price elasticities for domestic and imported cigarettes are -0.6 and-1.1, respectively. The cross-price elasticities are 0.08 for domestic and 2.78 for imported cigarettes. The spread of cigarette health information has had a significantly negative effect on cigarette consumption. In addition, this study offers mild support to the argument that opening the market to imported cigarettes has resulted in significant increases in overall cigarette consumption. (JEL D12, 118)     

论产品价格、劳动力价格与消费需求

价格高水平变动与消费需求变动的关系比较间接。劳动力相对其他商品的价格不断提高，是经济发展表现出的普遍规律。劳动力价格对产品价格不断提高是消费需求持续增长的必要条件。通过企业之间的竞争来实现劳动生产率的提高和非农产业就业人数的增长，是实现大众消费良性循环的根本措施。     

NEW ESTIMATES OF GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM 1830–1914

This paper presents a new annual series for United Kingdom gross national product, at current and constant prices, calculated from the expenditure side. These results differ significantly from previous estimates in that they go back to the beginning of the railway age on an annual basis and also in that the constant price estimates involve a detailed deflation of the main components of expenditure on consumption and capital formation. The implications of the new results are summarised, with particular reference to rates of growth and relative price changes, and an appendix describes the sources of the estimates.     

Environmental defensive expenditures and households behaviour in Italy

The paper explores the role of Environmental Defensive Expenditures in the consumption behaviour of Italian households. Environmental Defensive Expenditures are not borne to increase households' welfare, but to prevent or avoid the effects of a worsening environmental quality. The literature on environmental accounting argues that economic growth in industrialized countries is accompanied by an increasing load of defensive activities that may lead to a reorientation of consumption behaviour. In this work this hypothesis is tested using annual data on mean consumption expenditures of Italian households from 1985 to 1996. A complete system of demand is estimated and short-run price elasticities of demand for Defensive Expenditures are calculated. The complete system of demand functions is specified using the Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System proposed by Banks, Blundell and Lewbel. Results show that there is very low substitution between the demand for the six aggregate goods in which total expenditure is here divided and the Environmental Defensive Expenditures. Thus it seems that an increase in Environmental Defensive Expenditures, driven by a change in environmental quality, would not lead to a change in the consumption pattern, at least as far as Italian households are concerned.