中国可再生能源产业化发展的成长过程分析

本文在明确可再生能源和可再生能源产业化概念的基础上，分析了可再生能源产业化发展的成长过程，并对中国可再生能源政策的发展阶段、农村能源产业的成长过程、可再生能源技术商业化的发展阶段进行了分析。     

Causality between income and emission: a country group-specific econometric analysis

Empirical studies of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) examine the presence or otherwise of an inverted U-shaped relationship between the level of pollution and the level of income. Customarily, in the diagram of EKC the level of income is shown on the horizontal axis and that of pollution on the vertical axis. Thus, it is presumed that the relationship between income and pollution is one of unidirectional causality with income causing environmental changes and not vice versa. The validity of this presumption is now being questioned. It is being asserted that the nature and direction of causality may vary from one country to the other. In this paper, we present the results of a study of income–CO₂ emission causality based on a Granger causality test to cross-country panel data on per capita income and the corresponding per capita CO₂ emission data. Briefly, our results indicate three different types of causality relationship holding for different country groups. For the developed country groups of North America and Western Europe (and also for Eastern Europe) the causality is found to run from emission to income. For the country groups of Central and South America, Oceania and Japan causality from income to emission is obtained. Finally, for the country groups of Asia and Africa the causality is found to be bi-directional. The regression equations estimated as part of the Granger causality test further suggest that for the country groups of North America and Western Europe the growth rate of emission has become stationary around a zero mean, and a shock in the growth rate of emission tends to generate a corresponding shock in the growth rate of income. In contrast, for the country groups of Central and South America, Oceania and Japan a shock in the income growth rate is likely to result in a corresponding shock in the growth rate of emission. Finally, causality being bi-directional for the country groups of Asia and Africa, the income and the emission growth rates seemed to reinforce each other.     

A robust analysis of the relationship between renewable energy consumption and its main drivers

We provide a comprehensive and robust analysis of the drivers of renewable energy consumption for a panel of 64 countries, using both the static (Pooled OLS, Panel Fixed and Random Effects) and dynamic (difference and system GMM) panel data estimation approaches. We show that the dynamic panel data model provides more efficient estimators than the static ones and that increases in per capita CO₂ emissions and per capita trade with foreign partners mainly drive the changes in per capita renewable energy consumption. We also find limited evidence of oil price effects on renewable energy consumption, which reflects the fact that renewable energy is just a complement and not a perfect substitute of crude oil, at least in the short run.     

The control of CO2 emissions and its economic impact: An AGE model for a german state

Since it is believed that CO₂ is responsible for 55% of the greenhouse effect, a CO₂ levy is now under consideration in several countries. For an assessment of the macroeconomic implications of an integrated energy and environmental policy we employ an applied general equilibrium model (AGE) since all sectors of an economy and all private households contribute to CO₂ emission. Our model is a temporary equilibrium model with capacity extension under adjustment costs and with abatement activities for SO₂ and NO_x emissions.The model of consumer behavior will result in a system of consumer demand functions for non-durables as well as for durable goods. The simulations show the cost of inefficiency in resource allocation if CO₂ taxes differ between industries and households. We finally present the marginal cost curve of CO₂ emission reduction.     

CO2 and Energy Efficiency of Different Heating Technologies in the Dutch Glasshouse Industry

This paper uses Data Envelopment Analysis tocompute input-based technical efficiencymeasures and CO₂ and energy technicalefficiency of specialised vegetable firms inthe Netherlands over the period 1991–1995. Input-based scale efficiency is also calculatedfor each firm. These efficiency measures aregenerated for firms with different heatingtechnologies. The empirical results indicatethat firms use energy quite efficiently and areless efficient in terms of CO₂ emissions. Differences in CO₂ (energy) efficiencyacross different technologies are (not)statistically significant. In particular,firms using traditional heating technologiesare less efficient in terms of CO₂. Scaleadjustments can provide an importantcontribution to further efficiencyimprovements.     

Decomposition of energy-related CO2 emission over 1991-2006 in China

This paper presents a decomposition analysis of energy-related CO₂ emission in China for the period 1991-2006 divided into three equal time intervals. The complete decomposition method developed by Sun is used to analyze the nature of the four factors: CO₂ intensity, energy intensity, structural changes and economic activity. The results show that economic activity has the largest positive effect in CO₂ emission changes in all the major economic sectors and China has achieved a considerable decrease in CO₂ emission mainly due to the improved energy intensity. However, the impact of CO₂ intensity and structural changes is relatively small. Structural changes only exhibit positive effect to the CO₂ mitigation in agricultural sector, and CO₂ intensity also contributes to the decrease of CO₂ emission in transportation sector. Moreover, a formula about CO₂ mitigation is presented in this paper, which shows that China has made a significant contribution to reducing global CO₂ emission.     

Decomposing the decoupling of CO2 emissions and economic growth in Brazil

This paper examines the occurrence of a decoupling between the growth rates in economic activity and CO₂ emissions from energy consumption in Brazil from 2004 to 2009. This decoupling was highlighted when economic activity and CO₂ emissions moved in opposite directions in 2009. More generally, we observe several periods of relative decoupling in Brazil, but not to the extent witnessed in 2009. To identify the determinants of emissions change, we develop a decomposition model based on a log-mean Divisia index (LMDI) framework. The results indicate that the carbon intensity and energy mix are the main determinant of emissions reduction in Brazil between 2004 and 2009. Modifications in the economy structure are also associated to emission mitigation in the period. Such evidence demonstrates similarities with events of decoupling registered for the interval 1980-1994 in Brazil. Finds from Brazil differ from observations in other countries in which improvement in energy intensity has been the most common determinant of emissions reduction.     

Economic growth and carbon emissions: evidence from CIVETS countries

ABSTRACT

This paper examines whether a long-run relationship exists between CO₂ emissions and selected variables: real gross domestic product per capita, inward stock of foreign direct investments, gross fixed capital formation, industry, value added and energy use per capita for Colombia, Indonesia, Viet Nam, Egypt, Turkey and South Africa countries in the period of 1989–2016. We used panel unit root testing, followed by panel cointegration tests and panel causality. The results clearly prove the existence of a bidirectional long-run causal relationship between all the variables except between CO₂ emissions and GDP and CO₂ emissions and GFCF. Major finding of the short-run causality analysis is that CO₂ emission in the short run does not result in changes of other variables. On the other hand, all variables except foreign direct investments (FDI) cause the changes in the CO₂ emissions, and there is a positive bidirectional causal relationship between GDP and FDI, between GFCF and FDI, and between GFCF and IVA. Finally, positive unidirectional causal relationship also exists, running from GDP to IVA, GDP to ENUSE, IVA to FDI and ENUSE to FDI.     

Renewable energy consumption and unemployment: evidence from a sample of 80 countries and nonlinear estimates

This article contributes to the discussion on the dynamic nexus of renewable energy consumption and unemployment by incorporating nonlinear cointegration and causality analysis. Using a sample of 80 countries spanning the period 1990–2013 and the advanced generation of unit root, cointegration and nonlinear Granger causality methodological approaches in panel data, we obtain mixed results about the impact of renewable energy consumption on unemployment. Although the total findings document a positive impact of renewable energy consumption on unemployment, disaggregated data across specific regions, such as Asia and Latin America, highlight the favourable effect on unemployment, implying that the effect of renewable energy consumption on jobs creation depends on the cost of adopting renewable energy technologies and energy efficiencies that seem to vary across the regions under investigation.     

中国经济发展与能源消费、环境关系的实证分析

采用1985～2007年中国能源消费、环境与经济增长的时间序列数据,利用单位根检验、协整分析、误差修正模型和格兰杰因果关系检验方法,对中国经济增长和能源消费、环境之间的关系进行了实证分析。研究结果表明:中国的能源消费、煤炭消费、石油消费、电力消费、工业固体废物产生量均与经济增长之间存在一种长期均衡关系。格兰杰因果关系分析发现,经济增长与能源消费之间存在双向因果关系,经济增长与煤炭消费、电力消费之间只存在单向因果关系,经济增长与石油消费、工业固体废物产生量之间不存在因果关系。     

Renewable and nonrenewable energy production and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa: a hidden cointegration analysis

The objective of this article is to investigate the hypothesis of asymmetric effects between economic growth and renewable and nonrenewable energy production. To this end, both the linear cointegration and the hidden cointegration methodology are employed, with the latter allowing a straightforward delimitation of the data in an economically sensible way. We test for the presence of hidden cointegration across 12 sub-Saharan African countries spanning the period 1971–2011. The empirical results confirm the growth hypothesis for a subset of countries, suggesting that their growth could be adversely affected by conservation policies, while for a second subgroup of countries they confirm the conservation hypothesis, indicating that conservation policies could enhance the growth process in these countries. The differentiation of the results could be captured entirely by the linear approach, indicating that the lack of cointegration between renewable energy production and economic growth found in previous studies may be due to failures to properly delimit the nonlinearity property in the data.     

Localized innovation, localized diffusion and the environment: an analysis of reductions of CO2 emissions by passenger cars

We investigate technological change with regard to CO₂ emissions by passenger cars, using a Free Disposal Hull methodology to estimate technological frontiers. We have a sample of cars available in the UK market in the period 2000–2007. Our results show that the rates of technological change (frontier movement) and diffusion (distance to frontier at the car brand level) differ substantially between segments of the car market. We conclude that successful policies should be aimed at the diffusion of best-practice technology, and take account of the different potential for further progress between different segments of the market (e.g. diesel vs. gasoline engines and small vs. large engines).

The impact of population on CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> emissions: evidence from European countries

This paper analyses the impact of population growth on CO₂ emissions in European Union countries. Traditionally, researchers have assumed a unitary elasticity of emissions with respect to population growth. In this study population is treated as a predictor in the model, instead of being included as part of the dependent variable (per capita emissions), thus relaxing the above-mentioned assumption of unitary elasticity. We also contribute to the existing literature by taking into account the presence of heterogeneity in the sample and considering a dynamic specification. The sample covers the period 1975–1999 for the current European Union members. Our results show that the impact of population growth on emissions is more than proportional for recent accession countries whereas for old EU members, the elasticity is lower than unity and non significant when the properties of the time series and the dynamics are correctly specified. The different impact of population change on CO₂ emissions for the current EU members should therefore be taken into account in future discussions of climate change policies within the EU.      

Structural decomposition analysis and input-output subsystems: Changes in CO2 emissions of Spanish service sectors (2000-2005)

The analysis of gas emissions by an input-output subsystem approach provides detailed insight into pollution generation in an economy. Structural decomposition analysis, on the other hand, identifies the factors behind the changes in key variables over time. Extending the input-output subsystem model to account for the changes in these variables reveals the channels by which environmental burdens are caused and transmitted throughout the production system. In this paper we propose a decomposition of the changes in the components of CO₂ emissions captured by an input-output subsystems representation. The empirical application is for the Spanish service sector, and the economic and environmental data are for years 2000 and 2005. Our results show that services increased their CO₂ emissions mainly because of a rise in the emissions generated by non-services to cover the final demand for services. The decomposed effects show a decrease in CO₂ emissions due to technological changes between 2000 and 2005 compensated by an increase in emissions caused by the rise in final demand of services. Finally, large asymmetries exist not only in the quantitative changes in the CO₂ emissions of the various services but also in the decomposed effects of these changes.     

基于CPI“篮子商品”的价格传导机制研究——对非食品渠道和食品渠道的考察

文章对CPI"篮子商品"中非食品类和食品类商品的价格传导机制进行考察,采用2005-2010年月度价格指数数据实证分析了两个产业链渠道的上中下游价格传导效应。研究结果显示,两个渠道内的价格指数之间都存在稳定的长期均衡关系,但短期内食品渠道内的价格传导比非食品渠道顺畅,而非食品渠道内存在显著的价格倒逼机制。当两个产业链上的价格各自受到外部冲击时,在食品渠道中能显著传递至下游的CPI,但在非食品渠道中传递至CPI的效应并不明显。     

The CO2 ‘trade balance’ between Scotland and the rest of the UK: Performing a multi-region environmental input–output analysis with limited data

In this paper we attempt an empirical application of the multi-region input–output (MRIO) method proposed by Turner, Lenzen, Wiedmann and Barrett [Turner, K., Lenzen, M., Wiedmann, T., Barrett, J., 2007. Examining the global environmental impact of regional consumption activities — part 1: a technical note on combining input–output and ecological footprint analysis. Ecological Economics 62 (1), 37–44] in a recent issue of this journal in order to enumerate the CO2 pollution content of interregional trade flows between Scotland and the rest of the UK (RUK). We extend the analysis to account for direct emissions generation by households, as final consumers, and to a social accounting matrix (SAM), where a more comprehensive account of incomes and expenditures is possible. While the existence of significant data problems mean that the quantitative results of this study should be regarded as provisional, the interregional economy-environment IO and SAM framework for Scotland and RUK allows an illustrative analysis of some very important issues in terms of the nature and significance of interregional environmental spillovers within the UK and the existence of a CO₂ ‘trade balance’ between Scotland and RUK.     

Economic Growth and CO2 Emissions in the European Union

This paper examines the relationship between economic growth and CO₂ emissions in the European Union. A panel data analysis for the period 1981 to 1995 is applied in order to estimate the relationship between Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth and CO₂ emissions in ten selected European countries. The analysis shows important disparities between the most industrialised countries and the rest. The results do not seem to support a uniform policy to control emissions; they rather indicate that a reduction in emissions should be achieved by taking into account the specific economic situation and the industrial structure of each EU member state.     

Input-output subsystems and pollution: An application to the service sector and CO2 emissions in Spain

The analysis of input-output subsystems provides a useful tool for studying the productive structure of the different sectors of an economy. In this paper we develop this analysis to the study of the CO₂ emissions associated to the group of branches of the service sector. The decomposition of the total production of the services subsystem allows us to decompose the CO₂ emissions into five different components (own, demand volume, feed-back, internal and spill over components). From the results obtained, we can highlight the different roles played by the different branches of services. Transport activities are the services with the highest level of the direct emissions generated in the production of the sector. These activities are required by the other sectors of the economy to a greater degree than they are for their own final demand. Therefore, the production sold to other sectors causes more emissions than its own final demand. However, in the case of other service activities, direct and indirect emissions related to final demand are much more important, due to the strong pull effect of service activities on other activities of the economy. In this respect, Wholesale and retail trade, Hotels and restaurants, Real estate, renting and business activities, and Public administration services should be highlighted. These services receive scarce attention in the design of policies aimed at reducing emissions, but are notably responsible for the major increase in emissions experienced in recent years.     

Stochastic convergence of per capita carbon dioxide emissions and multiple structural breaks in OECD countries

This research applies an innovative panel data stationarity testing procedure developed by Carrion-i-Silvestre et al. [Carrion-i-Silvestre, J.L., Barrio-Castro, T.D. and Lopez-Bazo, E., 2005. Breaking the panels: An application to the GDP per capita, Econometrics Journal 8, 159–175.], which has the advantage of recognizing multiple structural breaks and the presence of cross-section dependence in order to re-investigate the hypothesis that per capita carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions stochastically converge for 21 OECD countries from 1950 to 2002. Remarkably, the evidence clearly indicates that the panel dataset of relative per capita CO₂ emissions is stationary after the structural breaks and cross-sectional dependence are introduced into the model. These findings offer strong policy implications for governments, regardless of whether they are in “convergent group” or “divergent group” countries. We also find that the structural breaks in the 1960s and over the 1970–1982 period are associated with time periods of fossil fuel becoming the main source of productivity, higher oil prices, and the development of nuclear power.     

Adoption of digital repositories for CO2 emissions reduction: the case of Korea

This study aims to estimate the potential economic benefits, energy and CO₂ emissions reductions when using trusted third-party digital repository (TTPR) services in one individual bank, and within the banking industry in Korea. First, the cost, benefit and net benefit of using TTPR services in the banking industry are estimated. Second, the net induced output effect is estimated. Third, based on an environmentally extended input–output analysis, CO₂ emissions reduction was estimated as 1924.32 tons in 2009 and the energy consumption reduction as 640.70 TOE. Fourth, the total economic benefit, which is the sum of the net induced output effect and economic value of CO₂ emissions reductions, is approximately $11.04 million. The findings demonstrate that energy consumption and CO₂ emissions reductions are meaningful enough to result in significant economic benefits. Therefore, the Korean government should promote the use of TTPR services in the entire industry.