Input demand and substitution under target-return pricing the case of Austrian manufacturing

Zusammenfassung Das neoklassische Standardmodell der Produktion postuliert den kostenminimierenden, effizienten Einsatz von Inputs bei vorgegebener Nachfrage und bei Konkurrenzpreisen. Zahlreiche empirische Studien übertragen dieses Modell auf reale Märkte und schätzen Elastizitäten der Nachfrage und der Substitution auf dieser Basis. Die vorliegende Studie vergleicht dieses Konkurrenzmodell mit einem alternativen Ansatz, wonach sich die Preisbildung auf unvollkommenen Outputmärkten nach dem Prinzip des target-return pricing vollzieht. Es wird gezeigt, daß die geschätzten Elastizitäten sensitiv auf die Wahl des Modells reagieren. Die Substitutionsmöglichkeiten sind nach den Ergebnissen beschränkt, was auf die limitierte Effizienz einer preisinduzierten Inputnachfrage im Sinne des neoklassischen Ansatzes hinzuweisen scheint. Die Schätzung der Modelle wird anhand österreichischer Industriedaten 1964–1979 im Aggregat wie in sektoraler Klassifikation durchgeführt.

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The research program was supported by the Austrian Fund for Scientific Research. The authors wish to thank Prof. Winckler and anonymous referees for helpful comments.     

Water pollution abatement by Chinese industry: cost estimates and policy implications

Factory-level data are used to estimate water pollution abatement costs for Chinese industry. Joint abatement cost functions are utilized which relate total costs to treatment volume and the simultaneous effect of reductions in suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand, biological oxygen demand and other pollutants. Tests of alternative functional forms suggest that a very simple (constant elasticity) model fits the data as well as a complex (translog) model, permitting sophisticated policy experiments with relatively simple calculations. From the results, the cost-effectiveness of current pollution control policy in China is analysed. Basic conclusions are (1) The benefits of stricter discharge standards should be weighed carefully against the costs. For the sample of 260 factories, a shift across the existing range of standards entails a present-value difference of US$330 million in abatement costs. (2) Emissions charges as low as US$1.00/ton would be sufficient to induce 80% abatement of suspended solids for cost-minimizing factories. Charges of US$3, US$15 and US$30 per ton would be sufficient to induce 90% abatement of TSS, COD and BOD. (3) The current regulatory system provides an economic incentive to abate by charging a levy on pollution in excess of the standard. However, the results suggest that changing to a full emissions charge system would greatly reduce overall abatement costs. For the 260 factories in the sample, the current overall abatement rate could be attained under a charge system at a reduced annual cost whose present value is US$344 million.     

Approximate variance formulas for the elasticities of substitution obtained from translog production functions

This note supplies approximate variance formulas for the Allen Partial Elasticities of Substitution estimated with a three-input translog production function. These formulas are based on a first-order Taylors series approximation to the true but unknown variances.     

The implications of a third-order translog demand system and some empirical results

In this paper a homogeneity and symmetry unconstrained variant of the “third-order translog”, representing a third-order approximation to an indirect utility function, is derived. Using Christensen, Jorgenson and Lau's (1975) data, and subsequent observations to 1986, we estimate this third-order translog, and show that it dominates the homogeneity and symmetry unconstrained translog. The restrictions implied by homogeneity and symmetry, conditional on our third-order translog are also rejected. These results are of interest since they demonstrate that standard restrictions implied by the theory of consumer behaviour can be rejected even in the context of a fairly general model which has been estimated using aggregate, time-series data. However, it has been found that the inclusion of dynamic effects sometimes leads to non-rejection of theoretical restrictions (Anderson and Blundell 1983). Unfortunately, the use of aggregate, time-series data to estimate a dynamic, third-order translog would be problematic, since exact aggregation restrictions are imposeda priori and observations are limited. This suggests that it would be more appropriate to estimate the third-order translog using cross-sectional micro-data sets with many observations. This type of data is now available, and can be used to estimate systems of consumer demands. Furthermore, these data sets contain extensive information on demographic characteristics which, having recently been found to be important determinants of demand (Barnes and Gillingham 1984) can be included in general demand systems of the third-order translog type.     

Semi-non-parametric estimates of substitution for Canadian monetary assets

We estimate the dynamic Fourier expenditure system to obtain consistent estimates of short-run and long-run Morishima elasticities of substitution for Canadian liquid assets. We argue that the variability of the estimated elasticities and evidence of less than perfect substitution between monetary assets interferes with the successful use of simple-sum aggregates and traditional log-linear money-demand functions.
Calibrations semi-non-paramétriques de la substitution pour des actifs monétaires canadiens . Les auteurs calibrent le système dynamique de dépenses à la Fourier pour obtenir des estimations cohérentes des élasticités de substitution à la Morishima à court et à long termes pour des actifs monétaires canadiens. Ils suggèrent que la variabilité des élasticités estimées et la constatation que la substitution n'est pas parfaite entre les actifs monétaires rendent difficile un usage heureux des agrégats de simple somme et des fonctions log-linéaires de demande de monnaie.     

Time substitution for environmental performance: The case of Swedish manufacturing

We extend recent advances in time substitution modeling to a directional distance function framework, in order to examine the environmental performance of firms in Sweden’s pulp and paper industry for the years 2002–2008. Our data allow us to estimate the optimal reallocation of environmental investments, expenditures and energy use to simultaneously maximize production output and minimize emissions in the years immediately before and after the implementation of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme. We find some evidence of overall productivity decline when considering both emissions and output objectives, due primarily to technological decline, and that cumulative dynamic inefficiency outweighs static inefficiency. A comparison of optimal investment with observed investment indicates that firms could have improved their performance by reallocating environmental investments to early periods and production-oriented investment to later periods.     

The implications of private tutoring on the school education in LDCs

In many LDCs, we observe that the public school teachers receive low wages, expend less than their full effort at school, and provide private tutoring to the students for a fee. To capture this institutional arrangement, we develop a theoretical model which shows that in comparison with ‘no-tutoring’, ‘tutoring’ is welfare reducing for all students in the economy. However, if the government considers only the students in the public system, then ‘tutoring’ can be welfare improving. In that case, the government would set a lower tax rate to pay wages to the teachers and let them provide tutoring to the students for a fee.     

The newer antipsychotics: evidence for cost-effectiveness and policy implications

SUMMARY

The current reluctance in some health authorities to provide full funding for the use of the new generation of antipsychotics is not in the best interests of patients or the National Health Service. Schizophrenia is a complex and costly disease, which relies too much on hospital care because of funding shortages elsewhere.

New research attitudes are required to assist health policy decisions. Economic evaluations using evidence solely from randomised controlled trials (RCTs) are insufficient and give a partial and potentially misleading picture. The complexity of the illness and its outcomes in schizophrenia as well as the social influences on hospital admission and discharge exaggerate methodological difficulties arising from the nature of RCTs. The long-term, relapsing nature of the disease in many patients means that long-term evidence must be considered from non-randomised observational studies.

This paper discusses recent reviews and major publications in order to examine the economic arguments for newer atypicals as a class. The economic data published to date consistently suggest that these newer agents should not increase the direct costs of treating schizophrenia and may in fact reduce them. As there are undoubted patient benefits, not least a reduction in side effects, especially extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) with the potential to improve compliance and reduce relapse, the range of atypicals might be made available and the clinician allowed to make a choice based on clinical not economic grounds.

The funding of these newer agents, although they are ultimately of benefit to patients and to the NHS, stretches already sparse resources. The likely freeing up of beds previously blocked by patients on older 'conventional' treatments will allow them to be used by those patients who currently escape the net. This will further increase funding requirements as more patients present for treatment. There are ethical, clinical and political grounds for increasing funding for the treatment of schizophrenia to take advantage of the biggest revolution in antipsychotic therapy since the launch of the first neuroleptics.     

Determinants of innovation behaviour and investment estimates for west-german manufacturing firms

In this paper, the determinants of innovation behaviour and investment are explored with a large micro-data panel from West-German manufacturing firms. The estimates are discussed within a microeconomic model with monopolistic competition, demand uncertainty and a delayed adjustment of capacities and the production technology. The estimates reveal positive firm-size effects which hint towards scale economies associated with innovations. Market power promotes innovations but not investment, and exporters innovate more but exhibit less investment expenditures. Finally, excess demand promotes innovations. This indicates a complementarity of innovations and investment and hints towards permanent productivity effects of temporary demand shocks.     

Parametrizing nonparametric translog models: A goal programming/constrained regression study of U.S. manufacturing

This paper demonstrates how Goal Programming/Constrained Regression can be used for cross-checking results from standard econometric models as well as a stand alone methodology in empirical production analysis. For illustration, we re-examine Berndt and Wood's (BW) seminal study of the U.S. manufacturing industry. Whereas energy and capital were found to be complements in BW's study, we found them to be substitutes. First version received: September 1996/final version received: September 1997     

E时代的货币自由化:发展前景与货币政策含义

现有文献由于缺乏货币制度及其变迁的分析框架,从而高估了私人电子货币所承载的货币自由化前景。货币制度原理解析表明,迄今为止,尚未出现真正意义上的私人电子货币。货币制度变迁中的激励不足,使得私人电子货币的出现并流通,面临着巨大的制度约束。抛开制度变迁框架后,进一步的货币替代效率分析,也同样得出了私人电子货币令人难以乐观的前景。虽然不存在私人电子货币带给传统货币政策的根本性冲击,但是,在“货币——银行”电子化的背景下,随着货币需求的利率弹性增强,利率在货币政策操作框架中的地位将会明显提高。     

Input cost, capacity utilization and substitution in the short run

This article studies the behavior of input cost shares in an environment where labor is costly to adjust, materials can be adjusted at no cost and capital is fixed. A model relating cost shares with relative prices and adjustment costs is proposed, allowing joint estimation of the elasticity of substitution and the adjustment cost function, which is an unknown function of the capacity utilization. Based on a panel of more than 700 manufacturing firms, we find evidence of strong input share variations according to the degree of capacity utilization. The estimated shapes of adjustment costs curves of labor are in agreement with our theoretical model, and we obtain sensible elasticities of substitution estimates. Based on such estimates, we find evidence of a negative (positive) bias in downturns (recoveries) in conventional productivity growth measures.     

The potential for underinvestment in internet security: implications for regulatory policy

With the continuing growth of the use of the Internet for business purposes, the consequences of a possible cyber attack that could create a large scale outage of long time duration becomes a more and more serious economic issue. In this paper, we construct a game-theoretic model that addresses the economic motivations for investment in added Internet security and makes a case for a possible market failure in the form of underinvestment in the provision of Internet security. This result relies on the fact that the social value derived from consumption (which is at least equal to a fraction of the surplus derived from e-commerce) greatly exceeds the revenue at stake associated with the telecommunications companies’ and ISP’s security levels. If the ratio of social value to revenue at stake to Internet providers continues to grow, the likelihood of underinvestment in security becomes higher and some form of regulation may become necessary. We discuss the difficulties associated with designing and enforcing a regulatory scheme based upon mandatory security standards.      

Scale properties and input substitution in mexican electrical equipment manufacturing

This paper investigates the existence of scale economies in the Mexican electrical equipment industry and estimates direct and cross price input demand elasticities using a translog cost function. Although the estimated value of the cost elasticity was consistent with economies of scale, it was significantly less than 1 only at a significance level slightly greater than 5 percent. The estimated cross price elasticities indicated that all of the inputs were substitutes. Nevertheless, while lower trade barriers under the North American Free Trade Agreement, ceteris paribus, may have a short-term adverse effect on the demand for labor in this industry by increasing imports of cheaper capital and intermediate goods, the relatively low values for E_LK and E_LM also support the conclusion that the impact on employment may be relatively small.This project was supported by the Faculty Development Leave Program at the University of Texas at San Antonio.     

Retailer power: recent developments and policy implications

It is common, but incorrect, to view retailing as a highly competitive activity. Unlike manufacturing, retailing has displayed a trend towards much higher concentration, reinforced by actions of retailers themselves, such as emphasis on own-label brands. This may introduce distortions arising from exercise of market power or may create countervailing power to that already enjoyed by manufacturers. Acknowledging increased market power within retailing raises new issues for competition authorities. We develop a consistent framework of analysis and use it to examine two issues: attitudes to retail mergers and exclusivity arrangements between retailers and their suppliers.     

Incentives for investment in energy efficiency: an econometric evaluation and policy implications

Technical studies suggest that there exist many opportunities to improve energy efficiency, and that a substantial proportion is profitable by current business standards. This study deals with the question why so many of these profitable opportunities are not used. Reasons for not implementing profitable opportunities are idetified, and their effect is estimated on the basis ofa survey among Dutch firms, designed specifically for this study. The reasons that prevail indicate what policy measures may accompany energy taxes in the pursuit of energy efficiency improvement. In addition, energy efficiency elasticities are estimated, as well as the factors that determine the elasticities. These too indicate opportunities for government policy, if it wants to improve the effectiveness of energy taxes.     

Currency substitution,policy rule and pass-through: evidence from Turkey

In this article we analyse empirically currency substitution and exchange rate pass-through in the Turkish Economy, where their ongoing presence could undermine the implementation of a successful monetary policy, especially in a flexible exchange rate regime. Even though a considerable time has passed after the implementation of a flexible exchange rate regime in Turkey, by using Vector Error Correction model for the period from 1987 to 2004, we find that the currency substitution and exchange rate pass-through still have importance in the Turkish Economy and the monetary policy stance has been considerably strong, possibly, as a response of ongoing presence of them. If this is the case, to avoid the undesired consequences of this strong monetary policy, Turkey should consider some policy measures to reduce the degree of pass-through and currency substitution.     

Monetary policy and inventory investment in Greek manufacturing industry

The paper reports an attempt to estimate the role of Greek monetary policy in inventory investment in manufacturing. Interest and inflation rate expectations exercise a significant influence. Expected fluctations in the exchange rate, for the first time examined, are of major importance especially for stocks of raw materials which are mostly imported. Being strongly affected by monetary variables, inventory investment can play a major role as a transmission channel of monetary policy changes to the Greek economy.