The effect of phosphate detergent bans on consumer clothing expenditures

Metropolitan sales data from the 1977 Census of Retail Trade were analysed to test whether phosphate detergent bans increased consumer expenditure on clothing: positive effects were found for men's clothing and domestic fabrics (sheets and towels). In areas with medium water hardness the average annual cost in 1977 equalled $11·08 per household. For 1984, the equivalent cost was $14·17 per household. These results are consistent with laboratory studies that show decreased detergency associated with non-phosphate detergents and increased fabric wear associated with carbonate-built detergents, the principle substitute for phosphate detergents. The bans impose the largest cost on hard water areas. In both ban and non-ban areas in 1977 higher laundering costs were associated with higher water hardness. Analysis of 1972 data indicated that water hardness did not affect clothing expenditures significantly when detergents contained large amounts of phosphates.     

The economic impact of a household product: the use of nitrilotriacetic acid

Purchase,¹ in her review of laundry practices, concluded that there was significant increased cost due to the banning of phosphate detergents. The cost calculation was, in all likelihood, significantly inflated. A review of her methodology and assumptions, and those of related studies, provides significant adjustments to her conclusions. This issue is important to home economists and environmentalists. The recalculation demonstrates that these interests are less in conflict than Purchase's data would indicate.     

Consumer laundry practices and satisfaction: pre- and post-phosphate detergent ban

Laundry practices and satisfaction of consumers in soft and hard water areas were compared before and after the state of Virginia initiated a ban on the sale and use of phosphate-built laundry detergents. Respondents to mail questionnaires (184 before: 174 after) generally had high satisfaction with laundry results before and after the ban despite the fact that they did not always follow currently recommended laundry practices. Post-ban, few practices had changed, but more respondents in both water areas tended always or frequently to add extra detergent for heavily soiled items. Thus. during the first 2 or 3 months of the ban little effect on laundry practices and satisfaction was apparent. Education about recommended laundry practices appears beneficial because of the implications for family economic well-being.     

A survey of commercial laundry detergents - how effective are they?: Part III: powders,liquids and hard water

The effectiveness of 42 detergents, 11 non-phosphate containing powdered detergents, 12 phosphate containing powdered detergents, 11 unbuilt liquid detergents and eight built liquid detergents, of varying formulations, in cleaning a standard soiled fabric in water of varying hardness was evaluated. Powdered detergents were found to be significantly affected only at very high water hardness levels. There was no significant difference between washing in warm and hot water for the liquid detergents, except for a melaleucaoil based detergent which performed significantly better in hot water. Increasing water hardness had no significant effect on liquid detergents. Powdered detergents performed better than liquid detergents in cleaning the standard soiled fabric. While no one detergent was significantly better than the others, in general, washing with detergents that contained phosphates did give somewhat better results in warm water. Detergents that contained bleach as an additive did not result in whiter fabric.     

A survey of commercial laundry detergents – how effective are they? Part I: powders

The effectiveness of 11 non-phosphate containing powdered detergents and 12 phosphate containing powdered detergents, of varying formulations, in cleaning a standard soiled fabric in soft water (5 ppm) were evaluated. It was found that in soft water there were no differences between washing with either phosphate or non-phosphate detergent. In general, washing with detergents which contained phosphates did give somewhat better results in warm water. Detergents that contained bleach as an additive did not result in a whiter fabric.     

The effects of water hardness level on washing quality using commercial laundry detergents

The water hardnesses were determined for 10 samples of water. A wide variation of water hardnesses were found ranging from very soft to very hard. The effectiveness of six commercial laundry detergents of different formulations were evaluated. The detergent containing a non-ionic surfactant with a phosphate builder was found to give the best whiteness results, regardless of water hardness. Because of the possible environmental problems associated with the use of phosphates, consumers may wish to select the next most effective detergent formulation, which varied between water samples.     

Environmental value chain management of laundry detergents in the use phase

Environmental value chain management is concerned with the environmental aspects of products and services along the whole value chain, from raw material and energy acquisition to waste management. The use phase in the value chain remains an understudied subject, despite considerable consumption‐related environmental impacts. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the use phase of laundry detergents in households. Our empirical data consist of interviews in the laundry rooms of 299 Finnish households. Consumers’ environmental awareness, use of dosage measuring devices and actual doses of laundry detergents are studied in the empirical part of the study. The results show that consumers do not perceive households as significant polluters, the measuring devices they use are diverse and the number of ‘heavy users’ is high in all detergent brands. It is concluded that in the consumption of laundry detergents, consumers do not perceive environmental issues as specific value criteria in relation to the use of laundry detergents. Manufacturers, marketers and other actors in the value chain of laundry detergents could contribute to alleviating the harmful environmental impacts of the use phase by more effective consumer education and better product design. For consumers, it might be beneficial to adopt eco‐efficiency thinking in their daily consumption.     

Changing laundry habits in Norway

Maintenance is often the most energy‐demanding stage during clothes' life cycle. Therefore, a shift towards more sustainable washing habits has great potential to reduce the consumption of energy, water and detergent. This paper discusses the change in laundering practices during the past 10 years in Norway and suggests strategies to help consumers change their laundry habits to more sustainable ones. Quantitative information of consumers' experiences, habits and opinions concerning clothing maintenance was collected through three surveys in Norway in 2002, 2010 and 2011. The 2010 study was supplemented with qualitative in‐depth interviews of a strategic sample of households. The average washing temperature has decreased slightly during the studied time periods. Some products' washing frequencies remained the same, whereas other products such as jeans were used a few more days before washing. The cotton programme is the most used washing programme, but short programmes are gaining popularity. The laundry sorting processes vary greatly and are influenced by several factors such as washing temperature, colours, fibre type and use area. For some consumers, the use of several different sorting categories made it more difficult to collect a sufficient amount of clothing to fill the machine. They were also afraid that overfilling the machine would result in clothes that were not clean enough or had detergent residues. Detergent dosing practices are far from optimal. In 2010, although the majority of respondents only used eye measure and did not know the water hardness of their area, they still tried to vary detergent dosage based on the amount of laundry and the level of soiling. Different design for sustainable behaviour strategies could be used within detergent dosage systems, care labelling, machine programme selection (such as suggesting lower temperature and eco‐programme), machine filling grade indicators, storage systems for slightly used clothing and textile material choice.     

A survey of commercial laundry detergents — how effective are they? Part II: liquids

The effectiveness of 11 unbuilt liquid detergents and eight built liquid detergents, of varying formulations, in cleaning a standard soiled fabric in soft water (5 ppm) were evaluated. It was found that in soft water there were no significant differences between washing in warm or hot water with either type of detergent, except for a melaleuca oil based detergent which was significantly better in hot water. However, although not significant, in general, washing with unbuilt liquid detergents did give somewhat better results in both warm and hot water.     

Detergent residues in textiles

The purpose of this study was to determine concentrations of detergent residues in textiles washed with three types of detergents. One detergent contained phosphate. In the other two (concentrated or ecological detergents) phosphate had been replaced by zeolite, which contains silicates. The textiles were washed using two programmes for coloured materials (at 60°C). The programmes differed with regard to volume of rinse water and number of rinsings. Detergent residues in textiles were determined chemically. Zeolite particles were determined electron microscopically. The results showed that most of the detergent residues remaining in textile strips were anionic tensides. They increased in proportion to the quantity of detergent used for washing. The least residues were left by concentrated detergents. Anionic tensides are suspected of causing skin irritation, probably allergy in atopic persons. Zeolite particles may irritate skin mechanically or cause through irritation respiratory distress. Washing programmes using less rinse water than other programmes increased detergent residues by 30%. It is concluded that there is a positive linear relationship between concentration of detergent and residues in textiles, and a negative linear relationship between water volume and residues in textiles after laundering. This could be of considerable importance from a health point of view and should be evaluated before any detergent is marketed. A methodology combining different standardized methods for analysing detergent residues in textiles was developed in this study.     

Effects of socio‐demographic factors on laundry behaviours in Europe and their implications on sustainability

The continuing rise of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is leading to catastrophic damage in many parts of the world over the coming decades unless GHG emissions can be controlled quickly. The objective of reducing GHG emissions can only be accomplished when all the sectors contributing to GHG emission act responsibly. The contribution of the household to GHG emission was 19.6% in the European Union (EU) in 2013. The energy consumption for laundry washing in the EU, estimated at 24.2 TWh/year, is a substantial share of household energy use. As the use phase of the washing machine is the dominant stage where the environmental impact occurs, this paper addresses some of the EU consumers’ washing and drying behaviour in the laundry process. Information on consumers’ behaviour regarding the laundry process was collected by a semi‐representative survey in eleven EU countries in 2015, including more than 5,000 participants. The main outcome of the study is that consumers’ behaviour regarding the laundry process differs substantially between the EU countries. Moreover, socio‐demographic characteristics of households affect the overall sustainability profile of the laundry process.     

The adoption of sustainable laundry technologies by US consumers

The adoption of sustainable laundry technologies by US consumers has lagged behind that of other countries and even behind the projections for adoption made by the US government. Most US household currently own and use the top‐loading vertical axis (v‐axis) agitator type washers, which use large amounts of water as well as additional energy to heat the water. More sustainable laundry practices include the use of energy‐ and water‐efficient front‐loading horizontal‐axis (h‐axis) washers. These washers have been demonstrated to use 38% less water and 58% less energy than the standard top‐loading v‐axis models. The adoption of more energy‐efficient washing technologies is of interest to many, including policy makers, because of their water‐ and energy‐saving potential. Little is known about the attributes and issues consumers use in their decision to adopt high‐efficiency washers for their home. This study uses Roger's Diffusion of Innovations Theory to understand the adoption of h‐axis washers by US consumers. An online survey of 330 consumers who own washing machines found that 23% currently own h‐axis washers and 24% of consumers intend to purchase an h‐axis when they replace their top‐loading vertical (v‐axis) washers. Energy and water savings are the most frequently cited reasons overall for adopting the h‐axis washer and cost was the main reason for not adopting the technology. Other issues, such as dissatisfaction with cleaning power and problems with machine cleanliness and maintenance, did not play a major role in adoption. Specific marketing and education channels, where US consumers are looking for information about h‐axis washers, are also identified. Overall, the results suggest that the rate of h‐axis adoption in the US is accelerating, but that many of the benefits of the technology are not easily observed by non‐owners.     

Clean laundry with pure conscience—A study on laundry practices among Finnish consumers

The previous study concerning laundry practices in Finland was published 16 years ago. Since that time, many pro‐environmental debates have been going on and sustainable actions have been implemented in many areas of individual lives and households. The purpose of this study is to investigate the textile laundering practices of Finnish consumers and their attitudes toward clothing care procedures. This study discusses how laundry habits could be developed into a more sustainable direction. The data for this research were gathered through an online enquiry that consisted of structured multiple‐choice questions. The data were obtained from 1,841 persons of whom 97.5% were women (n = 1,795). The data were analyzed by statistical means using the SPSS program. The data show that, despite media attention and debate about textile care procedures, there still are factors in laundering that burden the environment. From a sustainability point of view, some improvements exist when comparing to the situation 16 years ago, but washing machines still are seldom filled to their full capacity and consumers, being unaware of water hardness, administer excessive amounts of detergent. The current life situations of the household members seem to be major factors influencing laundry habits and sustainable actions. Especially, young people and families with children would benefit from information and instructions on laundry practices. Topics could contain knowledge about water hardness and proper dosing of detergent, filling the washing machine, washing temperatures, drying methods, and saving energy. Furthermore, general promotion of gender equality is important because household work and laundering is strikingly women‐performed work.     

HOME LAUNDERING PART I. AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LAUNDERING SOILED TEXTILES

The washing performance of a popular U.K. detergent product has been evaluated at two different temperatures. The results are discussed in terms of potential energy savings which can be achieved by washing at cooler temperatures and the acceptability of the clean laundry as determined by a panel of consumers.     

Laundry routine and resource consumption in Australia

Inconspicuous consumption, the habitual use of resources in daily routines, poses a challenge to sustainable consumption. For example, laundry is often the most environmentally demanding stage of clothing's life cycle, consuming significant quantities of water, energy and chemicals. Laundry thus provides a prime example of inconspicuous consumption, from which to consider sustainability transitions. However, because of the mundane nature of washing clothes, it is sometimes over looked in sustainable fashion literature. This paper presents the results of surveying 263 Australians about their jeans, laundry habits and resource consumption, to build a picture of the expectations and actions surrounding the performance of cleanliness in everyday life. These surveys are triangulated against in‐depth interviews with people who had not washed their jeans for three months revealing qualitative insights into influences of laundry practice. This paper documents how and why people perform laundry. An interesting finding is that people can not wash and still be socially acceptable, suggesting that cleanliness is a cultural construct, the pursuit of which increases the use of water, energy and chemicals, in conflict with sustainable consumption goals.     

Consumer laundry practices in Germany

Sustainability is a guiding principle for a responsible, future‐oriented 21st century lifestyle and this already begins in private households with the daily household tasks. Approximately 25% of an average household's electricity consumption is required to do the laundry and dishwashing – 5% alone is for washing clothes with a corresponding energy consumption of 6 billion kilowatt hours. In addition, 600 000 tonnes of detergent and 330 million cubic metres of water are used for textile care in Germany. These figures provide the rationale for the scientific study of current practices of using washing machines and for a resulting estimate of the latent energy‐saving potential in German households. In the context of the in‐home study presented here, 236 private households throughout Germany were studied with respect to their washing practices and existing knowledge about topics on the sustainable, energy‐saving use of their washing machines. Overall, across all households 2867 wash cycles were individually recorded and subsequently analysed over a 4‐week period. The results of this study show that washing machines tend to be underloaded, and therefore maximum loading of the machines could lead to a reduction of wash cycles per household. With respect to detergent dosage, it was determined that the consumer does not adjust the dosage to the textile type, load size, soil level and/or water hardness, and this can lead to under‐ or overdosing depending on prevailing conditions. Finally, the selection of the wash temperature showed a 90°C/95°C programme was only chosen in 2.3% of all recorded wash cycles, however, every fourth cycle was completed at 60°C. Therefore, adjusting the load size and detergent dosage as well as selecting the right wash temperature are key themes to be taken into account in future consumer communication about energy‐saving households.     

Wasserpreise zwischen Kartellkontrolle und Nachhaltigkeit

The regulatory framework of the German water sector is currently undergoing a reorientation process at both the EU and national levels. Price regulation of water utilities is particularly controversial. Recently, some national antitrust authorities have significantly increased their oversight of abusive practices. However, the focus of the regulation in this field is exclusively on efficiency while neglecting other pricing objectives (e.g. internalisation of environmental costs). The article examines the current practice of different price regulation schemes (cost plus pricing and control of abusive practice) and identifies its shortcomings. It is shown that different regulating principles of relevant laws (law of charges, competition law and water law) have to be better aligned and sustainability issues need to be taken into account in theory and practice when addressing efficiency requirements for water utilities.     

Bacterial survival on fabrics laundered in cold water

The effect of detergent formulation and fabric type on bacterial survival after home laundering in cold water was investigated. Three fabrics, 65/35 polyester/cotton shirting, 100% cotton sheeting, and 100% cotton terry cloth, were inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus, laundered in cold 60 ± 5°F (16 ± 3°C) water and machine dried. Eight phosphorus-based powders and non-phosphorus detergents in both powder and liquid form were used. A control with no detergent was used. Percent reduction in bacteria after machine washing and after machine drying were determined. Of the eight detergents studied, only two effectively removed 100% of the bacteria from the cotton terry cloth after washing. These were sodium carbonate and aluminosilicate-based powders, one of which contained sodium perborate, the other included enzymes. All of the detergents used removed > 97% of bacteria from the polyester/cotton shirting and cotton sheeting fabrics. No significant cross contamination occurred with any fabric. A greater percent reduction of bacteria was obtained with the terry cloth samples after washing and tumble drying than after washing alone. The implications of the study are important for consumers who are using colder water in the laundering process. This study found that bacteria were removed more easily from the two plain weave fabrics than the looped terry cloth fabric. The effectiveness of tumble drying after cold water laundering to reduce bacteria in the terry cloth towelling was an important finding.     

Comparative study of phosphate and non-phosphate detergents

A comparison of three different detergents was made by evaluating their properties of soil removal, soil redeposition and calcium carbonate deposition. The detergents included a phosphate granular detergent, a non-phosphate, carbonate built granular detergent and an unbuilt liquid detergent. The local water conditions were moderately hard and clay type soils were used. Detergency was evaluated on the basis of both visual and instrumental colour changes. In effecting soil removal, clay stained fabrics laundered with the phosphate detergent retained only a small amount of soil, while fabrics laundered with the two non-phosphate detergents showed heavier staining. In preventing soil redeposition, the phosphate detergent produced almost no visible redeposition; the unbuilt and carbonate built detergents ranked correspondingly lower. In assessing calcium carbonate deposition, the phosphate and unbuilt detergents showed little or no change, while the carbonate detergent continued to build up deposits with laundering. In summary, the phosphate detergent ranked highest in overall performance, with correspondingly lesser performance from the unbuilt and carbonate detergents.     

Impacts of Patent Expiry on Daily Cost of Pharmaceutical Treatments in Eight OECD Countries, 2004–2010

Variability in regulatory frameworks, industrial policy, physician/pharmacy autonomy, brand/generic distinctions, and the practice of medicine contribute to ambiguous interpretations of cross-country pharmaceutical cost comparisons. Here, we report cross-country comparisons that: (i) focus on ten therapeutic classes experiencing patent expiration and loss of exclusivity 2004–2010 in eight industrialized countries; (ii) convert revenues and unit sales to cost per day of treatment and number patient days treated using the World Health Organization’s Defined Daily Dosage metrics; (iii) compare patterns in costs per day of treatment with price index measures based on average price per day of treatment for each molecule computed over all molecule versions; (iv) utilizing econometric methods, model and quantify various factors affecting variations in daily treatment price indexes such as national regulatory and reimbursement policy changes, physician/pharmacy autonomy, and other factors; and (v) simulate changes in expenditures by country and therapeutic class had counterfactual policies been implemented.