Empirical tests on the asset pricing model with liquidity risk: An unobserved components approach

The aim of this paper is to test empirically the conditional liquidity-adjusted capital asset pricing model (L-CAPM) developed by Acharya and Pedersen (2005). Accordingly, we propose to estimate the L-CAPM using unobserved components methodology, which allows us to take into account the main stylized facts characterizing liquidity. Based on a sample of firms listed on the NASDAQ, our empirical analysis reveals several findings. Firstly, we show that liquidity is time-varying and exhibits strong seasonality. Secondly, we highlight the impact of the liquidity level premium on asset prices. Thirdly, we show that the most important liquidity risk is related to the covariance between portfolio illiquidity and market returns. Fourthly, we observe a negative relationship between portfolio returns and market illiquidity. Fifthly, we find that liquidity risk and illiquidity level are not always positively correlated.     

资本市场流动性研究综述

对资本市场流动性的研究有助于解释流动性溢价问题,提高投资者的流动性风险意识。系统回顾了国内外有关资本市场流动性的研究现状,从流动性测度、流动性与资产定价以及市场之间的流动性相关性等问题进行梳理和总结,对今后的研究方向做出了展望。     

过度自信、流动性和资产定价

本文研究了过度自信的投资者在一个多阶段金融市场中是如何影响均衡价格和投资者要求的期望收益的.结论表明,由于投资者过度自信,容易低估风险,从而在一段时期内会使得价格急剧上升.投资者人数实际上是股票市场流动性的一个表征,我们的结论表明,由于过度自信的投资者的存在,他们实际上充当了流动性提供者的角色,从而使得一段时期内即使对理性投资者来说,依然导致了风险的暂时降低,他们也会接受比较高的资产价格,要求相对比较低的期望收益.     

On the role of liquidity in emerging markets stock prices

This paper investigates the impact of liquidity on emerging markets' stock prices. Particular attention is given to the estimation of Jensen's alpha and the quantity of risk. Our empirical analysis gives rise to two main issues. The first is related to the presence of an extra premium, i.e. “alpha puzzle”. The second is the time-varying component of the quantity of risk, i.e. “beta puzzle”. We find that local liquidity factors do not explain the presence of positive and statistically significant alphas. This puzzle is solved by means of transaction costs. In addition, we show that global liquidity factors, such as VIX and Open Interest, statistically affect the market price of risk. Our empirical finding proves the time varying nature of the global risk factors. Finally, we argue that standard asset pricing models cannot solve the two puzzles simultaneously.     

Diverse beliefs and time variability of risk premia

Why do risk premia vary over time? We examine this problem theoretically and empirically by studying the effect of market belief on risk premia. Individual belief is taken as a fundamental primitive state variable. Market belief is observable; it is central to the empirical evaluation and we show how to measure it. Our asset pricing model is familiar from the noisy REE literature but we adapt it to an economy with diverse beliefs. We derive equilibrium asset prices and implied risk premium. Our approach permits a closed form solution of prices; hence we trace the exact effect of market belief on the time variability of asset prices and risk premia. We test empirically the theoretical conclusions. Our main result is that, above the effect of business cycles on risk premia, fluctuations in market belief have significant independent effect on the time variability of risk premia. We study the premia on long positions in Federal Funds Futures, 3- and 6-month Treasury Bills (T-Bills). The annual mean risk premium on holding such assets for 1?C12?months is about 40?C60 basis points and we find that, on average, the component of market belief in the risk premium exceeds 50% of the mean. Since time variability of market belief is large, this component frequently exceeds 50% of the mean premium. This component is larger the shorter is the holding period of an asset and it dominates the premium for very short holding returns of less than 2?months. As to the structure of the premium we show that when the market holds abnormally favorable belief about the future payoff of an asset the market views the long position as less risky hence the risk premium on that asset declines. More generally, periods of market optimism (i.e. ??bull?? markets) are shown to be periods when the market risk premium is low while in periods of pessimism (i.e. ??bear?? markets) the market??s risk premium is high. Fluctuations in risk premia are thus inversely related to the degree of market optimism about future prospects of asset payoffs. This effect is strong and economically very significant.     

Liquidity and equity returns in Borsa Istanbul

We investigate the relationship between expected returns and liquidity measures in Borsa Istanbul. To do so, we gather a wide range of illiquidity measures that can be applied to the market. Firm-level cross-sectional regressions indicate that there is a positive relationship between various illiquidity measures and one- to six-month ahead stock returns. Findings of the article are robust after using different sample periods and controlling for well-known priced factors, such as market beta, size, book-to-market ratio and momentum. The portfolio analysis reveals that stocks that are in the highest illiquidity quintile earn 7.2%–19.2% higher risk-adjusted annual returns than those in the lowest illiquidity quintile. The illiquidity premium is stronger for small stocks and stocks with higher return volatility and it increases (decreases) during periods of extremely low (high) market returns.     

Water as an investment: liquid yet illiquid!

The water industry is in great need of further large investments to address existing severe water shortages worldwide which requires the participation of private sector investors. This industry is heavily infrastructure based and is therefore saddled with fixed assets-in-place or illiquid assets. This exposes the industry to what is termed as ‘illiquidity risk’, and hence, investors in this industry should be compensated for bearing this risk with an appropriate return premium (i.e. extra return). In this study, we provide evidence as to whether illiquidity risk indeed significantly affects returns in this industry. We examine the case of all 76 firms that compose the five major global water indices. After controlling for other factors that impact on returns, our results suggest that asset illiquidity is positively associated with stock returns. Specifically, water firms with a larger proportion of illiquid assets-in-place are observed to have greater stock returns than those with a smaller proportion of illiquid assets. Our results have important implications for the financing of water-related projects particularly those which involve the participation of investors from the private sector.     

信用风险、信息与协调

金融机构的短期债券同时被大小两种债权人持有。信用风险由流动性不足风险和破产风险组成。我们建立了一个同时包含大小两种债权人的模型来研究大的债权人、短期债券比例与市场流动性如何影响信用风险。模型的结果显示:(1)提高大的债权人的信息准确度可以让小的债权人更愿意继续借贷,因此降低了流动性不足风险;(2)短期债券比例的提高会增加流动性不足风险,也就增加了总的信用风险;(3)市场流动性越强,流动性不足风险就越小。     

Liquidity-adjusted conditional capital asset pricing model

This paper derives a liquidity-adjusted conditional two-moment capital asset pricing model (CAPM) and a liquidity-adjusted conditional three-moment CAPM respectively based on theory of stochastic discount factor. The liquidity-adjusted conditional two-moment CAPM shows that a security's conditional expected excess return consists of three parts: its conditional expected liquidity cost, the systemic risk premium and the liquidity risk premium. The liquidity-adjusted conditional three-moment CAPM shows that a security's conditional expected excess return depends on its conditional expected liquidity cost, the conditional covariance between its return and the market return, the conditional covariance between its liquidity cost and the market liquidity cost, and the conditional coskewness of its return and the market return.     

Informed trade,uninformed trade and stock price delay

The probability of informed trading (PIN), a measure of information-based trading risk, has been broadly applied to empirical studies on asset pricing. However, it is still controversial whether PIN measures exclusively the risk of firm-specific private information or it also captures the private interpretation of market wide public information. This article examines the relevance of PIN to the delayed response of stock prices to market-wide information. We find that PIN significantly explains individual stock price delay even controlling for size, liquidity and risk, and low-PIN stock prices adjust to market information more rapidly not only because of a notably high level of informed trading but also an even much higher level of uninformed trading. Our findings support the notion that PIN also captures the private skilled interpretation of public common factor information by sophisticated investors, and provide new empirical evidence on how information-based trading affects the speed at which stock prices adjust to information.     

流动性、股票定价及时变性：来自我国沪深股市的经验证据

本文在经流动性风险调整的资产定价模型的基础上,通过引进四个工具变量,构建了一个检验模型,于时间序列上对中国股票市场进行了实证分析。实证结果显示：我国的股市流动性单位风险溢价于时间序列上存在显著的时变性。从而证实了投资者之内生流动性风险对股票收益率之影响效应,进而揭示了一个货币供给量影响股市的一个作用机制,即股票价格的涨跌由于流动性水平的不同和由前者导致的流动性风险溢价要求的不同而受到影响。     

股权分置改革与IPO配置效率的实证研究

本文采用规范研究和实证研究相结合的方法,对股权分置改革对我国A股市场IPO效率的影响进行了深入的研究。本文发现,股权分置下新股供给限制、流通股的流动性溢价、二级市场价格控制,使得新股二级市场价格系统性偏离了发行公司的内在价值。对股权分置改革前后IPO样本的回归分析显示,股权分置改革前我国新股发行定价反映的公司内在价值信息相对有限,而股权分置改革后新股发行定价更加合理,因而股权分置改革有效地提高了IPO配置效率。     

Fuzzy Value-at-risk: Accounting for Market Liquidity

In this paper we present a value-at-risk measure which accounts for market liquidity. We show that taking into account market liquidity implies a decoupling of valuation of long and short positions. We present a pricing model, named fuzzy measure model, that yields different values for positions of different sign and that can be usefully exploited to account for liquidity risk. This methodology is well-suited to price options when the distribution of the underlying asset is not known precisely, as in the case of implied options in corporate claims or real options. As an example, we apply our pricing technique to an option based model of value-at-risk, in line with the Merton and Perold approach, and we recover different value-at-risk figures for long and short positions.
(J.E.L.: C00, D81, G12).     

Double Bubbles in Assets Markets With Multiple Generations

We construct an asset market in a finite horizon overlapping-generations environment. Subjects are tested for comprehension of their fundamental value exchange environment and then reminded during each of 25 periods of the environment's declining new value. We observe price bubbles forming when new generations enter the market with additional liquidity and bursting as old generations exit the market and withdrawing cash. The entry and exit of traders in the market creates an M shaped double bubble price path over the life of the traded asset. This finding is significant in documenting that bubbles can reoccur within one extended trading horizon and, consistent with previous cross-subject comparisons, shows how fluctuations in market liquidity influence price paths. We also find that trading experience leads to price expectations that incorporate fundamental value.     

过度自信、有限参与和资产价格泡沫

当存在模型不确定性且有限市场参与内生时,过度自信的投资者和理性投资者参与股票市场的程度有着不同的行为模式。本文给出的模型分析了两种投资者在不同情况下对股票市场的参与情况,借此解释有限市场参与、超额进入和资产定价之间的关系。模型在流动性溢价、投资者结构和风险溢价的关系等方面具有明显的实证含义。模型表明,理性投资者有更大的投资区域,但是非理性投资者在其投资区域内更为激进。进而,在不同情形下,模型给出了资产均衡价格与投资者结构之间对应关系。     

Global Investment Environment of the Post‐Quantitative Easing World: The ‘new‐old’ and ‘new‐new’ Normal

Global markets since late 2007 are not ‘normal’, where normal means market conditions we would expect to observe going forward in the absence of any new economic shocks. Financial markets have been dominated by extraordinary central bank policies that were created to deal with challenging market conditions reflecting heightened risk aversion and illiquidity. Markets in the future will have some characteristics that look more like the market conditions observed in the pre‐crisis period, which I call the ‘new‐old normal’ and other conditions that differ from the past, which I call the ‘new‐new normal’. I first review what happened during the financial crisis in terms of developments in three asset classes, equities, fixed income and currencies, to place the forward‐looking view in proper context. Then the transition period from the quantitative easing (QE) era of exceptional monetary policy to post‐QE markets is discussed. Post‐transition, we will see some features of the post‐QE world that will resemble pre‐crisis market conditions, the ‘new‐old normal’ with higher policy interest rates, wider cross‐country interest differentials, lower cross‐asset return correlations and a resurgence of the importance of cross‐country differences in fundamentals in international investing. However, some features of the post‐QE investment environment will be unlike anything observed in the past: the ‘new‐new normal’ with reduced liquidity and more days of exceptionally large volatility and asset price moves due to regulatory effects resulting in a reduced ability of market‐makers to provide inventory buffers for counterparties and electronic trading venues that shut down trading in high volatility periods; low inflation; flatter yield curves; and emerging markets providing less opportunity for diversification gains as they converge to developed financial market characteristics.     

ILLIQUIDITY COMPONENT OF CREDIT RISK – THE 2015 LAWRENCE R. KLEIN LECTURE

We provide a theoretical decomposition of bank credit risk into insolvency risk and illiquidity risk, defining illiquidity risk to be the counterfactual probability of failure due to a run when the bank would have survived in the absence of a run. We show that illiquidity risk is (i) decreasing in the “liquidity ratio”—the ratio of realizable cash on the balance sheet to short‐term liabilities; (ii) decreasing in the excess return of debt; and (iii) increasing in the solvency uncertainty—a measure of the variance of the asset portfolio.     

Monetary policy and asset prices

The purpose of this paper is study the effect of monetary policy on asset prices. We study the properties of a monetary model in which a real asset is valued for its rate of return and for its liquidity. We show that money is essential if and only if real assets are scarce, in the precise sense that their supply is not sufficient to satisfy the demand for liquidity. Our model generates a clear connection between asset prices and monetary policy. When money grows at a higher rate, inflation is higher and the return on money decreases. In equilibrium, no arbitrage amounts to equating the real return of both objects. Therefore, the price of the asset increases in order to lower its real return. This negative relationship between inflation and asset returns is in the spirit of research in finance initiated in the early 1980s.     

Collateral rehypothecation,safe asset scarcity,and unconventional monetary policy

We build a mark-to-market model where commercial banks can enlarge their balance sheets, repledging the available collateral several times to exchange liquidity through the interbank market. In bad times, the fall of risky asset price disrupts the length of the repledging chain due to the increase of the haircut and the decrease of external assets' value. In such a scenario, the central bank can intervene implementing unconventional monetary policies by purchasing a fraction of the banking system's external assets, both safe treasury bonds, and risky asset-backed securities, to inject liquidity. Our results show that a quantitative easing policy that purchases only safe assets is highly ineffective in restoring the intermediation activity to the pre-crisis level due to its inability to sustain the risky asset price and the repledging chain of collateral. Instead, focusing on risky assets only, the monetary authority can sustain risky asset prices, avoiding the freezing of the money market.     

Time-varying global and local sources of market and currency risks in Russian stock market

In this paper we study international asset pricing models and the pricing of global and local market risks as well as currency risk in the Russian stock market from an international investors' point of view using weekly data from 1999 to 2009. In our empirical specification, we utilize the multivariate GARCH-M framework of De Santis and Gérard (1998). We find currency risk to be priced in the Russian market. The price of currency risk is found to be time-varying and affected for example by the price of oil. Moreover, our results suggest that the Russian market is partially segmented and the local market risk is priced in the market. Our model implies in-sample risk premium for the Russian equity market that is, on average, almost ten times higher than that of the US and that the Russian risk premium is on average caused mostly by the local and currency risk components.